A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     X Chromosome: one of the two sex chromosomes, X and Y. See also Y chromosome, sex chromosome. Xenogeneic (Heterologous): pertaining to individuals of different species. Xenograft (Heterograft): tissue or organs from an individual of one species transplanted into or grafted onto an organism of another species, genus, or family. A common example is the use of pig heart valves in humans. A graft derived from an animal of a species different from the one receiving the graft. X-inactivation: a process by which one of the X chromosomes in each somatic cell of females is rendered inactive. This results in a balance in gene expression between in X chromosomal and autosomal genes, which is necessary because males have only one X chromosome. X-linked: an allele for a trait or disorder that is located on the X chromosome. May be either dominant or recessive. X-rays: rays emitted by a particular generator will emit a spectrum of energies.      Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Y Chromosome: one of the two sex chromosomes, X and Y. See also X chromosome, sex chromosome. Yeast Artificial Chromosome (YAC): constructed from yeast DNA, it is a vector used to clone large DNA fragments. See also — cloning vector, cosmid                Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     National Health Accounts: information, usually in the form of indicators, a country may collect on its health expenditures. Indicators may include total health expenditure, public expenditure, private expenditure, out-of-pocket expenditure, tax-funded and other public expenditure, social security expenditure, public expenditure on health. National Level Planning: the continuous, comprehensive and coordinated planning for the allocation or investment of a country’s resources in a way that achieves the desired pace or level of economic and social development. Natural Antibodies: antibodies that occur naturally without deliberate antigen stimulation. Natural Capital: the environment and natural resources. Natural Killer Lymphocytes (NK Cells): lymphocytes that are active in the immune surveillance of tumor. NK cells can lyse malignant target cells in vitro and appear to need no prior sensitization. Near-term: thirty-four or more completed weeks of gestation. Need: what a person requires in terms of health care. Negative Predictive Value: in screening and diagnostic tests, the probability that an individual with a negative test result does not have the condition is referred to as the predictive value of a negative test. Neighborhood: the term neighborhood usually refers to a local area which is defined in some way physically (for example, an estate or an area bounded by major roads) or by people’s perceptions of what constitutes their local area. Neighborhoods are usually fairly small. For example, neighborhoods designated for New Deal for Communities funding are usually made up of around 4,000 households or around 10,000 people. Neonatal Death: death of a live-born infant during the first 28 completed days of life. May be subdivided into early neonatal death, occurring during the first seven days of life, and late neonatal death, occurring after the seventh day but before 28 completed days of life. Neonatal Depression: clinical signs of neonatal depression include low Apgar score and its components and correlates, such as hypotonia; depressed reflexes including cry, suck, Moro’s embrace; decreased consciousness; difficulty in initiating and maintaining respiration; poor color; and bradycardia. Neonatal Encephalopathy: a clinically defined syndrome of disturbed neurologic function in the earliest days of life in the term infant, manifested by difficulty with initiating and maintaining respiration, depression of tone and reflexes, subnormal level of consciousness, and often by seizures. Nervous System: voluntary nervous system and the involuntary nervous system are composed of the brain, the spinal cord, and sensory nerves, which provide messages to the brain from the body, and motor nerves, which provide messages from the brain to the muscles and help muscles function. Network: a grouping of individuals, organizations and agencies organized on a non hierarchical basis around common issues or concerns, which are pursued proactively and systematically, based on commitment and trust. Neu: see c-erb-b2 proto-oncogene. Neurogenic Bladder Dysfunction: condition in which there is an abnormality of the nerve supply to the lower urinary tract that results in incontinence or the inability to completely empty the bladder (urinary retention). It is usually caused by neurological conditions, such as diabetes, stroke, or spinal cord injury. NGO: Non-Governmental Organization. Nitrogenous Base: a nitrogen-containing molecule having the chemical properties of a base. DNA contains the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). See also — DNA. Nocturnal Enuresis: complaint of loss of urine during sleep. In children it is called bedwetting. Nocturnal Frequency: needing to void one or more times per night between the time the person goes to bed with the intention of sleeping and the time the person wakes with the intention of rising. Nocturnal Polyuria: present when more than one third of the 24-hour output occurs at night (normally 8 hours while person is in bed). The nighttime urine output excludes the last void before sleep but includes the first void of the morning. Non-Contributing Register: a register that does not submit data, either directly or indirectly, to the Central Repository. This is because some registers may wish to be part of the Register Network but do not meet one or more of the Criteria for a Contributing Register. Non-Experimental Research Design: lacking one or more of the features of internal control (e.g., random assignment, a comparison group) that characterizes true experimental designs (also known as pre-experimental designs). Nonmaleficence: it is the obligation not to harm or cause injury and is best known in the maxim primum nonnocere: “First, do no harm”. Although there are some subtle distinctions between nonmaleficence and beneficence, they often are considered as manifestations of a single principle. These two principles taken together are operative in almost every decision to treat patient, because every medical or surgical treatment has both benefits and risks, which must be balanced knowledgeably. Non-Probability Sample: any non-randomized sample. A non probability sample is one in which individuals are selected for a survey on the basis of some shared characteristic. For example, all the students in the same classroom, or all the patients attending a diabetes clinic. These examples, also known as convenience samples, introduce a bias into the measurement of the outcome of interest. For example, patents who attend diabetes clinic may either already know or suspect that they suffer from the disease. Thus, the prevalence of diabetes in this sample is likely to be very high, and not representative of the prevalence of diabetes in the community. Non-Reassuring Fetal Heart Rate Monitor Strip/Tracing: fetal heart rate patterns that may in some cases suggest the fetus is depressed, hypoxic, or acidotic, including persistent variable decelerations of fetal heart rate that become progressively deeper or longer lasting (generally to <70 beats per minute and lasting >60 seconds) and show persistent slow return to baseline, persistent late decelerations, prolonged deceleration (an isolated, abrupt decrease to levels below the baseline lasting at least 60-90 seconds), and sinusoidal heart rate pattern (regular oscillation of the baseline long-term variability resembling a sine wave, lasting at least 10 minutes, usually occurring at a rate of 3-5 cycles per minute and an amplitude of 5-15 beats per minute higher and lower than the baseline, not to be confused with benign small, frequent accelerations of low amplitude). Nonsense Mutation: a nucleotide substitution that results in a truncated protein product by generating a stop codon specifying premature cessation of translation within an open reading frame. Non-Specific Immunization: refers to stimulation of the general immune response by the use of materials (e.g., BCG or phytohemagglutinin) that are not antigenically related to the specific tumor. Northern Blot: a technique for transferring RNA from an electrophoresis gel to a nitrocellulose filter on which it can be hybridized to a complementary DNA (cDNA) probe. A gel-based laboratory procedure that locates mRNA sequences on a gel that are complementary to a piece of DNA used as a probe. See also — DNA, library. Nuclear Transcription Factors: proteins involved in regulating the expression of genes by controlling transcription. Some factors enhance and others repress gene expression and others do both, depending on the intracellular environment. Nuchal Translucency Measurement: accumulated fluid behind the fetal neck is measured in a standardized way. Nuclear Transfer: a laboratory procedure in which a cell’s nucleus is removed and placed into an oocyte with its own nucleus removed so the genetic information from the donor nucleus controls the resulting cell. Such cells can be induced to form embryos. This process was used to create the cloned sheep “Dolly”. See also — cloning. Nucleolar Organizing Region: a part of the chromosome containing rRNA genes. Nucleotide: a component of a DNA or RNA molecule composed of a nitrogenous base, one deoxyribose or ribose sugar, and one phosphate group. In DNA, adenine specifically joins to thymine and guanine joins to cytosine. In RNA, uracil replaces thymine. A subunit of DNA or RNA consisting of a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, thymine, or cytosine in DNA; adenine, guanine, uracil, or cytosine in RNA), a phosphate molecule, and a sugar molecule (deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA). Thousands of nucleotides are linked to form a DNA or RNA molecule. See also — DNA, base pair, RNA. Nucleus: the cellular organelle in eukaryotes that contains most of the genetic material. Nude Mice: mice born with a congenital absence of the thymus. The blood and thymus-dependent areas of the lymph nodes and spleen are depleted of lymphocytes. Null Hypothesis: this hypothesis, symbolized by H0, is a statement claiming that there is no difference between the experimental and population means. The alternative hypothesis (H1) is the opposite of the null hypothesis. Often in research we need to be able to test for both the positive and adverse outcomes, therefore a two-tailed hypothesis is chosen, even though the expectation of the experiment is in a particular direction. Number of Confirmed Cases of Measles: the number of cases from measles confirmed by laboratory, in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Confirmed Cases of Poliomyelitis: the number of cases from poliomyelitis due to wild poliovirus confirmed by laboratory in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Infant Deaths, Reported: the number of deaths in children under 1 year of age in a given year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, expressed as number of deaths, as reported from the national health authority. Number of Maternal Deaths, Reported: the number of maternal deaths in a given year and the number of live births in that same year for a given country, territory, or geographic area, as reported from the national health authority. Maternal death is defined as the death of a woman while pregnant or within the 42 days after termination of that pregnancy, regardless of the length and site of the pregnancy, due to any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy itself or its care, but not due to accidental or incidental causes. Number of Outpatient Care Facilities: the number of outpatient health care facilities, affiliated to all health institutions, in operation during a given year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Outpatient health care is defined as any professional encounter or contact, as an act of health service, between a non-hospitalized individual and a health worker responsible for the evaluation, diagnosis, treatment, or referral of that person in that encounter. Outpatient health care facility is defined as any type of physical area primarily designated to deliver outpatient health care services. Institutional affiliation includes any outpatient health care facility managed by the Ministry of Health or by a governmental equivalent, by Social Security systems, including those for the Army and Police Forces, and by private, for-profit or non-profit, voluntary-driven or not, organizations. Number of Registered Cases of Cholera: the number of cases registered from cholera in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Registered Cases of Dengue: the number of cases registered from dengue in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Registered Cases of Diphtheria in Children Under Age 5: the number of cases registered from diphtheria in children less than 5 years old in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Registered Cases of Human Rabies: the number of cases registered from human rabies in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Registered Cases of Malaria: the number of cases registered from malaria in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Registered Cases of Pertussis in Children Under Age 5: the number of incident cases registered from whooping cough in children less than 5 years old in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Registered Cases of Plague: the number of cases registered from plague in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Registered Cases of Tetanus Neonatorum: the number of cases registered from neonatal tetanus in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Registered Cases of Yellow Fever: the number of cases registered from yellow fever in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Registered Deaths due to AIDS: the number of deaths in total or by sex for which the underlying cause of death was Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) (ICD-9 codes 279.5 or 279.6; 042-044; ICD-10 codes B20-B24) for a given year, in a given country, territory or geographic area. Number of Registered Deaths due to Measles: the number of total registered deaths for which the underlying cause of death was measles (ICD-9 code 055; ICD-10 code B05) for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Registered Deaths due to Neonatal Tetanus: the number of deaths for which the underlying cause of death was neonatal tetanus (ICD-9 code 771.3; ICD-10 code A033) for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Nurse: a person who has completed a program of basic nursing education and is qualified and authorized in his/ her country to practice nursing in all settings for the promotion of health, prevention of illness, care of the sick and rehabilitation.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Macrophage: large mononuclear phagocyte. This cell may be called a histiocyte in the tissues; it is called a monocyte in the blood. An antigen must come in contact with or pass through a macrophage before it can become a processed antigen with the ability to encounter the then sensitize a small lymphocyte. Macrophage-Activating Factor: sensitized T lymphocytes can release a non-specific macrophage-activating factor that creates a cytotoxic population of macrophages that appear to distinguish malignant from normal cells, killing only malignant ones. Macrorestriction Map: map depicting the order of and distance between sites at which restriction enzymes cleave chromosomes. Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC): a cluster of genes encoding cell surface molecules that are polymorphic within a species and that code for antigens, which leads to rapid graft rejection between members of a single species that differ at these loci. Several classes of protein, such as MHC class I and class II proteins, are encoded in this region. Malformation: also congenital anomaly or birth defect. Any defect present at birth, probably of developmental origin. Managed Care: the use of a “manager” to control utilization of medical services and control costs. Managed Competition: government regulation of a health care market which uses competition as the means to achieve efficiency objectives within a framework of government intervention designed to achieve other policy objectives, such as equity. Management: the measures taken to plan, organize, operate and evaluate all the many elements of a system and the personnel involved. Manual Vacuum Aspiration (MVA): a technique for evacuating the contents of the uterus through use of a specially designed hand-held syringe. Mapping: see — gene mapping, linkage map, physical map. Mapping Population: the group of related organisms used in constructing a genetic map. Marginal Benefit: the additional benefit obtained by consuming the last (or next) unit of a commodity. Marker: see — genetic marker. Market Failure: the situation in which a market economy fails to attain economic efficiency. Market Mechanism: the interaction of buyers and sellers in market and mixed economies which determines the nature and volume of goods and services produced and their distribution. Mass Spectrometry: an instrument used to identify chemicals in a substance by their mass and charge. Maternal Mortality Ratio, Reported: the quotient between the number of maternal deaths in a given year and the number of live births in that same year, expressed by 100,000 live births, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, as reported from the national health authority. Maternal death is defined as the death of a woman while pregnant or within the 42 days after termination of that pregnancy, regardless of the length and site of the pregnancy, due to any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy itself or its care but not due to accidental or incidental causes. Mean: the average of a sample of observations. Mean Value: the average of a set of numbers. In epidemiology, the sample mean is the average value of the observations in a sample. Meatus: opening to the urethra. Median: the middle value when the values are arranged in order from the smallest to the largest. Median Value: the median is a number that separates the upper 50% of a sample from the lower 50%. It is the middle value of a distribution. Medical Eligibility Criteria: criteria for a woman’s eligibility to use a contraceptive method, based on the relative health risks and benefits of using such a method for a woman with a given condition. Medical Savings Account: allows or mandates people to place money in (tax-free) savings accounts to be used only for medical expenses, usually in conjunction with the purchase of a catastrophic stop-loss health insurance plan. Megabase (Mb): unit of length for DNA fragments equal to 1 million nucleotides and roughly equal to 1 cM. See also — centimorgan. Meiosis: the process of two consecutive cell divisions in the diploid progenitors of sex cells. Meiosis results in four rather than two daughter cells, each with a haploid set of chromosomes. See also — mitosis. Memory Cells: cells that can mount an accelerated antibody response to antigen. Mendelian Inheritance: one method in which genetic traits are passed from parents to offspring. Named for Gregor Mendel, who first studied and recognized the existence of genes and this method of inheritance. See also — autosomal dominant, recessive gene, sex-linked. Messenger RNA (mRNA): RNA that serves as a template for protein synthesis. The mature form of processed RNA used as a template for directing translation of proteins. See also — genetic code. Meta-analysis: an amalgamation of studies — a complex task to avoid misleading conclusions. The goal of combining results from different sources is to delineate which features are universal. The quality of the studies included is important to the final result. Many think that only prospective randomized clinical trials should be combined for a meta-analysis because such trials are usually of the highest quality. Metaphase: a stage in mitosis or meiosis during which the chromosomes are aligned along the equatorial plane of the cell. Methylation: (see DNA Methylation). MeV: 1,000,000 eV. MHC Restriction: the ability of T lymphocytes to respond only when they are presented with the appropriate antigen to which in association with either self MHC class I or class II molecules. Microarray: sets of miniaturized chemical reaction areas that may also be used to test DNA fragments, antibodies, or proteins. Microbial Genetics: the study of genes and gene function in bacteria, archaea, and other microorganisms. Often used in research in the fields of bioremediation, alternative energy, and disease prevention. See also — model organisms, biotechnology, bioremediation. Microinjection: a technique for introducing a solution of DNA into a cell using a fine microcapillary pipet. Microinjection (of Sperm): injection of one or more sperm under the outer covering of the oocyte for fertilization. Micronuclei: chromosome fragments that are not incorporated into the nucleus at cell division. Micturition: another term for urination or voiding. Migration Inhibition Factor: a lymphokine produced when a sensitized lymphocyte is exposed to an antigen to which it is sensitized. Migration inhibition factor inhibits the migration of these lymphocytes. Milking: checking for penile discharge by placing the fingers of one hand several centimeters behind the scrotum and bringing them upward and forward towards the base of the penis. Minimum Data Set (MDS): federally mandated screening and assessment form for Medicare- and Medicaid-certified long-term care facilities in the United States. This form is completed within 14 days of admission to the facility, quarterly, and when there is a significant change in the resident’s status. An annual update is also required. The information collected in the MDS is used in planning the care of the individual. Minor Histocompatibility Antigens: these antigens, encoded outside the MHC, are numerous but do not generate rapid graft rejection or primary responses of T cells in vitro. They do not serve as restricting elements in cell interactions. Missense: a mutation that alters a codon so that it encodes a different amino acid. Mitochondrial DNA: the genetic material found in mitochondria, the organelles that generate energy for the cell. Not inherited in the same fashion as nucleic DNA. See also cell, DNA, genome, nucleus. Mitochondrial Inheritance: mitochondria are inherited exclusively from women. Because they contain DNA, mitochondrial inheritance allows transmission of genes directly from the woman to her offspring. Mitogen: a substance that induces immunocompetent lymphocytes to undergo blast transformation, mitosis, and cell division (causing mitosis or cell division). Mitosis: the process of nuclear division in cells that produces daughter cells that are genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell. See also — meiosis. Mixed Formulae: often payment of professionals is based on a mix of methods (i.e. capitation plus fee-for-service for some services). Similarly, systems can be supplemented by bonus/target payments as an incentive for achieving certain objectives. Mixed Urinary Incontinence: combination of involuntary leakage associated with urgency and also with exertion, effort, sneezing, and coughing. A person has both urge and stress urinary incontinence. Mobilization: one of three sub-functions in the financing of health systems which aims at identifying and getting the money required to meet the health needs of the people, individually and collectively, in a given health system. Models: simplified descriptions of processes or systems. Model Organisms: a laboratory animal or other organism useful for research. Modeling: the use of statistical analysis, computer analysis, or model organisms to predict outcomes of research. Molecular Biology: the study of the structure, function, and makeup of biologically important molecules. Molecular Farming: the development of transgenic animals to produce human proteins for medical use. Molecular Genetics: the study of macromolecules important in biological inheritance. Molecular Medicine: the treatment of injury or disease at the molecular level. Examples include the use of DNA-based diagnostic tests or medicine derived from DNA sequence information. Monitoring: the ongoing process of collecting and analyzing information about the implementation of the activity such as newborn resuscitation. Monitoring and Evaluation: monitoring is the process of keeping track of events. For example, the monitoring of a project may involve counting the number of people coming into contact with it over a period of time or recording the way in which the project is administered and developed. Evaluation involves making a judgment as to how successful (or otherwise) a project has been, with success commonly being measured as the extent to which the project has met its original objectives. Both the “process” (activities) and “outcomes” (what is produced, for example in terms of changes in the health of those targeted by the project) can be monitored and evaluated. Monoclonal Antibody: antibodies with such high intrinsic specificity that only one or two antigenic determinants are recognized. Monogenic Disorder: a disorder caused by mutation of a single gene. See also — mutation, polygenic disorder. Monogenic Inheritance: see — monogenic disorder. Monokines: soluble substances, secreted by monocytes, that have a variety of effects on other cells. Monosomy: possessing only one copy of a particular chromosome instead of the normal two copies. See also — cell, chromosome, gene expression, trisomy. Moral Hazard: The possibility of consumers or providers exploiting a benefit system unduly to the detriment or disadvantage of other consumers, providers or the financing community as a whole, without having to bear the financial consequences or their behavior in part or in full. Morbidity: a state of disease. Morbid Map: a diagram showing the chromosomal location of genes associated with disease. Morula: a compact sphere of 16 blastomeres that forms at about 3-4 days after fertilization. Morbidity Rate: illness or disability rate, usually expressed per 1000 population. Mortality Rate: death rate per defined population, usually expressed per 1000. Mortality Rate from Land Transport Accidents, Estimated: the estimated total number deaths from land transport accidents, in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those ICD-10 codes V01-V89. Mortality Rate from Motor Vehicle Traffic Accidents, Estimated: the estimated total number deaths from motor vehicle traffic accidents, in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 codes E810-E819 or ICD-10 codes V02-V04(.1-.9), V09.2,V09.3,V12-V14(.3-.6), V19(.4-.6),V20-V28(.3-.9), V29-V78(.4-.9),V80(.3-.5), V81.1,V82.1,V83-V86(.0-.3), V87(.0-.8),V89.2,V89.9. Mosaic: an individual composed of two or more genetically dissimilar cell lines but from the same species. This can come about by somatic mutation or by grafting cells between individuals of close genetic constitution, such as dizygotic twins. Mosaicism: the presence of two or more populations of cells with different characteristics within one tissue or organ. Mother-To-Child Transmission (MTCT): transmission of HIV from an infected mother to her infant during pregnancy, labor or after delivery through breast milk. Mouse Model: see — model organisms. Multicenter Trial: a single trial conducted according to a single protocol but at more than one site (from ICH E6). These sites may be across multiple countries. They are advantageous because they offer more rapid patient accrual and allow for greater protocol complexity. Multicenter trials reduce the opportunity for an individual’s bias to influence the conduct of the trial; they increase the likelihood for the inclusion of a more representative study population and facilitate a higher standard for data processing and analysis. Multidisciplinary: HIA is not the preserve of any one disciplinary group. Instead, it draws on the experience and expertise of a wide range of “stakeholders”, who are involved throughout the process. These may include professionals with knowledge relevant to the issues being addressed, key decision makers, relevant voluntary organizations and — perhaps most importantly — representatives of the communities whose lives will be affected by the policy (Barnes and Scott-Samuel, 1999). Multifactorial Inheritance: inheritance of traits that are determined by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Multifactorial or Multigenic Disorder: see — polygenic disorder. Multiplexing: a laboratory approach that performs multiple sets of reactions in parallel (simultaneously); greatly increasing speed and throughput. Multistage Sampling: a multistage sample is an extension of a cluster sample, where the initial clusters are broken into further smaller clusters. Once a final selection of clusters to sample is made, a proportion of the subjects within each cluster is sampled. (e.g. if the sampling frame was an entire country then the country would be broken down into regions, then these regions would be broken down into cities and towns and then these would be randomly sampled). Multivariate Analysis: a technique of analysis of data that factors many variables. A mathematical model is constructed that simultaneously determines the effect of one variable while evaluating the effect of other factors that may have an influence on the variable being tested. The two most common algorithms developed to accomplish this task are the step-up and stop-down procedure. Variables are added to an initial small set or deleted from an initial large set while testing repeatedly to see which new factor makes a statistical contribution to the overall model. Murine: organism in the genus Mus. A rat or mouse. Mutagen: an agent that causes a permanent genetic change in a cell. Does not include changes occurring during normal genetic recombination. Mutagenicity: the capacity of a chemical or physical agent to cause permanent genetic alterations. See also — somatic cell genetic mutation. Mutation: an alteration of DNA sequencing in a gene those results in a heritable change in protein structure or function that frequently has adverse effects. Any heritable change in DNA sequence. See also — polymorphism. Myc Proto-Oncogenes: the proto-oncogene family that includes c-myc, N-myc, L-myc, and R-myc. They encode nuclear-associated DNA-binding proteins that affect DNA replication and transcription.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Backcross: a cross between an animal that is heterozygous for alleles obtained from two parental strains and a second animal from one of those parental strains. Also used to describe the breeding protocol of an outcross followed by a backcross. See also — model organisms. Bacteria: microscopic organisms that can cause infection and are usually treated with antibiotics. Bacterial Artificial Chromosome (BAC): a vector used to clone DNA fragments (100- to 300-kb insert size; average, 150 kb) in Escherichia coli cells. Based on naturally occurring F-factor plasmid found in the bacterium E. coli. See also — cloning vector. Bacteriophage: see — phage. Bacteriuria: bacteria present in the urine — 100,000 colony forming units (cfu). Base: one of the molecules that form DNA and RNA molecules. See also — nucleotide, base pair, base sequence. Baseline: an observation or value that represents the background level of a measurable quantity. Base Pair (BP): two nitrogenous bases (adenine and thymine or guanine and cytosine) held together by weak bonds. Two strands of DNA are held together in the shape of a double helix by the bonds between base pairs. Base Sequence: the order of nucleotide bases in a DNA molecule; determines structure of proteins encoded by that DNA. Base Sequence Analysis: a method, sometimes automated, for determining the base sequence. B Cell or B Lymphocyte: a bone marrow cell. These cells mediate humoral immunity and are thymus-independent cells. In the avian species, these cells are derived from the bursa of Fabricius. In humans, they originate in the bone marrow. Bedside Commode: portable toilet used by individuals who have difficulty ambulating to standard facilities. Bed Days: a day during which a person is confined to a bed and in which the patient stays overnight in a hospital. Behavioral Genetics: the study of genes that may influence behavior. Behavioral Techniques: specific interventions designed to alter the relationship between the patient’s symptoms and his or her behavior and/or environment for the treatment of maladaptive urinary voiding patterns. This may be achieved by modification of the behavior and/or environment. Benchmarking, also see Best Practice: a process of measuring another organization’s product or service according to specified standards in order to compare it with and improve one’s own product or service. Beneficence: literally means doing or producing good, is the obligation to promote the well-being of others. It is the principle requiring that a physician/healthcare provider must act in a manner that benefits the patient. Beneficiaries: the individuals covered within a health plan. Benefit, see Health Benefit: in health insurance, either a payment in cash paid in settlement of a claim under the terms of an indemnity policy or the provision of a service in kind following a medical contingency covered by a scheme. Benefits Package: the set of services and other advantages in money or kind to which a person or persons are entitled by virtue of meeting particular criteria. Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH): common disorder of men older than 50 characterized by enlargement of the prostate which may press against the urethra and interfere with the flow of urine, causing overflow incontinence. BPH is the most common cause of such anatomic obstruction in elderly men. Best Available, Best Record, Most Recent: the ‘Best Available’ or ‘Best Record’ data is a selection of the most recent, most nationally representative survey of ALL surveys contained with the infobase. This selection is performed by the WHO Global Infobase team based on the total collection of data available within the Infobase. If more recent data is available it should be provided to the WHO Global Infobase team. Best Available Evidence: conclusive evidence of the links between, for example, socio-environmental factors and health or the effectiveness of interventions is not always available. In such cases, the best available evidence — that which is judged to be the most reliable and compelling — can be used, but with caution. Best Practice, see Benchmarking: an examination of the methods by which optimal outcomes are achieved. Beta Error: the error of failing to reject a false null hypothesis, i.e. declaring that a difference does not exist when in fact it does. Failure to reject the null hypothesis when it is, in fact, incorrect. Also called a Type II error. Beveridge System, see Health Care System: the system of social security and health services arising out of the Beveridge report in England and Wales, first published in 1943. This report recommended provision of health care for all people through central taxation and other compulsory financial contributions and that a system of universal benefits should give support during unemployment or sickness and after disability and retirement. The National Health Service Act of 1946 established the provision of services, free-of-charge, for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of disease. Bias: allowing subjectivity (rather than objectivity) or prejudice (rather than impartiality) to affect sample selection or data collection and analysis. Prejudice leading to the conscious or unconscious selection of study procedures that depart from the truth in particular direction or to one-sidedness in the interpretation of results. Binding Site: a term used for the antibody-combining site and other sites of specific attachment of macromolecules to one another. Biofeedback Therapy: behavioral technique in which a person learns how to consciously control involuntary responses such as muscle contractions. The person receives a visual, auditory, or tactile signal (the feedback) that indicates how well the person’s muscles are responding to the commands of the person’s nervous system. The signal is derived from a measurable physiologic parameter, which is subsequently used in an educational process to accomplish a specific therapeutic result. The signal is displayed in a quantitative way, and the patient is taught how to alter it and thus control the physiologic process. Bioinformatics: the science of managing and analyzing biological data using advanced computing techniques. Especially important in analyzing genomic research data. See also — informatics. Biologic Response Modifier: the molecule produced by the body to regulate cellular responses. Bioremediation: the use of biological organisms such as plants or microbes to aid in removing hazardous substances from an area. Biotechnology: a set of biological techniques developed through basic research and now applied to research and product development. In particular, biotechnology refers to the use by industry of recombinant DNA, cell fusion, and new bioprocessing techniques. Birth Asphyxia: the term is used for failure to initiate and sustain breathing at birth. It is not used as a predictor of outcome. Birth Attendant: a trained person with midwifery skills providing delivery care for mother and newborn. Birth Defect: any harmful trait, physical or biochemical, present at birth, whether a result of a genetic mutation or some other nongenetic factor. See also — congenital, gene, mutation, syndrome. Birth Plan: a plan for giving birth that takes into account the woman’s or couple’s preferences as well as special circumstances and possible complications or emergency situations. Birth Weight: the first weight of the newborn, measured to the nearest five grams. It is usually obtained within the first hours of birth. Bismarckian System, see Social Health Insurance: a system of national social security and health insurance introduced into the 19th century German empire under the then Chancellor Bismarck. This system is a legally mandatory system for the majority or the whole population to obtain health insurance with a designated (statutory) third-party payer through non-risk related contributions which are kept separate from taxes or other legally mandated payments. Bladder: hollow, muscular organ that lies in the pelvis and is supported by the pelvic floor muscle. The bladder has only two functions: to stretch to allow the storage of urine and to contract to enable the expulsion of urine. The term detrusor is used to refer to the smooth muscle structure of the bladder. Bladder Catheterization: procedure in which a catheter is passed through the urethra and into the bladder for the purpose of draining urine and performing diagnostic tests of bladder or urethral function. Bladder Diary or Record: daily record of bladder habits documenting urination and episodes of incontinence. Bladder Training: behavior technique that requires the patient to resist or inhibit the sensation of urgency (the strong desire to urinate), to postpone voiding, and to urinate according to a timetable rather than the urge to void. BLAST: a computer program that identifies homologous (similar) genes in different organisms, such as human, fruit fly, or nematode. Blastocyst: a stage in early human development that follows from the formation of the morula. The balstocyst is a sphere of cells containing a fluid-filled cavity forming about 4 days after fertilization and prior to the beginning of the process of implantation. Blastomeres: the cells derived from the first and subsequent cell divisions of the zygote. Block Grants: These grants are lump sum grants, calculated prospectively, and based on specific criteria which cannot be influenced by the receiving authority in the short run, for example the number of inhabitants and their distribution. Blocking Factor: a humoral antibody or an antigen-antibody complex or other factor that coats antigenic sites with a protective covering so that neither complement nor killer lymphocytes can attack the cell. Boundaries of The Health System: the outer limits within which the health system operates. More specifically, they include all activities whose primary intent is to improve health. Boundary: the outer limit of a concept. Bowel Movement: act of passing feces through the anus. Bowel: another word for intestines. BPSD: behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia. Brachytherapy: treatment of malignant tumors by radioactive sources that are implanted close to (intracavitary) or within (interstitial) the tumor. Budget, also see Global Budget: a statement of the financial resources made available to provide an agreed level of service over a set period of time or to use them for a specific purpose. Burden of Disease: the total significance of disease for society beyond the immediate cost of treatment. It is measured in years of life lost to ill health as the difference between total life expectancy and disability-adjusted life expectancy. Bursa of Fabricius: a cloacal structure in avian species containing immature lymphoid elements (B cells) and presumed to govern the production of humoral antibodies through these B cells.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Calories Availability: the average nutritional energy content of the total daily per capita food supply, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, over a specific period in time, usually a year. Technical Note: Calorie availability is derived from food balance sheets standardized for a range of primary food commodities for human consumption, originated from supply/utilization national accounts and maintained by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. Cancer: diseases in which abnormal cells divide and grow unchecked. Cancer can spread from its original site to other parts of the body and can be fatal. See also — hereditary cancer, sporadic cancer. Candidate Gene: a gene located in a chromosome region suspected of being involved in a disease. See also — positional cloning, protein. Cantou: communal non-medical care in 12-15 room units organized around common living areas, in a home-like atmosphere with family participation encouraged. Cap: a limit on the amount that a payer or group of payers will pay. Capillary Array: gel-filled silica capillaries used to separate fragments for DNA sequencing. The small diameter of the capillaries permit the application of higher electric fields, providing high speed, high throughput separations that are significantly faster than traditional slab gels. Capital: an accumulation of financial resources not required for current consumption. This allows a contribution to be made to productive activity by investment in physical capital (such as buildings) and in human capital (such as education and training). Capital Expenditure: the expenditure that is required for financing permanent or semi-permanent facilities or equipment, such as buildings etc. Capital Investment: funding for resources such as buildings or other “one-off” purchases such as computer hardware and software and other office equipment. Capitation, in contrast to Fee-for-Service: a fixed payment to a provider for each listed or enrolled person served per period of time. Capping: the addition of 7-methlyguanosine residues to the 5΄ end of eukaryotic mRNA. Carcinogen: something which causes cancer to occur by causing changes in a cell’s DNA. See also — mutagene. Carrier: an individual who possesses an unexpressed, recessive trait. Caruncle (Urethral Caruncle): small, red benign tumor that is visible at the posterior part of the urethral meatus. Occurs chiefly in postmenopausal women and usually causes no symptoms. Case-Based Payment , see Payment: third-party payers pay physicians/ hospitals according to the cases treated rather than per service or per bed days. Case Control Study: a study in which participants are divided into exposed and non exposed groups and studied over a specific time. A study in which subjects are selected based on their presence of or absence of a selected disease or disorder. Case History: research that focuses in-depth on a particular (single) phenomenon, place, or person. Case-Mix: the composition of patients treated by a hospital or another provider. Case Series: an uncontrolled study of outcomes for a series of patients receiving a particular intervention. Cash Limit, see Cap: a limit imposed by the government on the amount of cash which a public body may spend during a given financial year. Catchment Area: a geographic area defined and served by a health plan or a health care provider. Catchment Population: estimate of the population served by a hospital or other health service unit or facility. Cathartics: medications that increase the clearing of intestinal contents. Also known as laxatives. Catheter: narrow, flexible rubber, latex, or silastic tube that is inserted or passed through the urethra or lower abdomen and into the bladder for the purpose of draining urine or performing diagnostic tests of bladder or urethral function. cDNA Library: a collection of DNA sequences that code for genes. The sequences are generated in the laboratory from mRNA sequences. See also — messenger RNA. Cell: the basic unit of any living organism that carries on the biochemical processes of life. See also — genome, nucleus. Cell-mediated Cytotoxicity: killing (lysis) of a target cell by an effector lymphocyte. Cell-mediated Immunity: immune reaction mediated by T cells, in contrast to humoral immunity, which is antibody mediated. Also referred to as delayed-type hypersensitivity. Census: an enumeration (inventory) of a population, which usually includes demographic information but may also include information on basic health-related issues. Centimorgan (cM): a unit of measure of recombination frequency. One centimorgan is equal to a 1% chance that a marker at one genetic locus will be separated from a marker at a second locus due to crossing over in a single generation. In human beings, one centimorgan is equivalent, on average, to one million base pairs. See also — megabase. Central Repository: a central database that contains the trial registration data sets provided by each Contributing Register. Centralization: the concentration of managerial functions at one point within the system. Centralized Planning: Planning governed centrally by the state covering all the goods and services that will be produced and how factors of production shall be allocated between sectors of a business or an economy. Centromere: a specialized chromosome region to which spindle fibers attach during cell division. c-erb-b2 Proto-Oncogene: also referred to as HER-2 or neu, this gene encodes a protein that is structurally similar to the receptor for epidermal growth factor. When it is amplified, the gene is of prognostic significance in breast and ovarian neoplasm. Cerebral Palsy: chronic static neuromuscular disability characterized by aberrant control of movement or posture, appearing early in life and not the result of recognized progressive disease. Cervix: lower portion of the uterus that connects with the vagina. Charges, see Price: a price imposed on goods or services. Chimera (pl. chimaera): an organism with tissues composed of two or more genetically distinct cell types. An organism that contains cells or tissues with a different genotype. These can be mutated cells of the host organism or cells from a different organism or species. Chimeraplasty: an experimental targeted repair process in which a desirable sequence of DNA is combined with RNA to form a chimeraplast. These molecules bind selectively to the target DNA. Once bound, the chimeraplast activates a naturally occurring gene-correcting mechanism. Does not use viral or other conventional gene-delivery vectors. See also — gene therapy, cloning vector. Chi Square: the primary statistical test used or studying the relationship between variables. This is a test used to compare proportions of categorical variables. Chloroplast Chromosome: circular DNA found in the photosynthesizing organelle (chloroplast) of plants instead of the cell nucleus where most genetic material is located. Choice of Care Provider: One of the aspects of the responsiveness of health systems whereby those seeking care have a choice between and within health care units, including opportunities for gaining specialist care and second opinions. Cholinergic: relating to fibers in the parasympathetic nervous system that release acetylcholine. Chorioamnionitis (Clinical): a clinical presentation that may include maternal fever, maternal and fetal tachycardia, elevated white blood count, uterine tenderness, and foul-smelling vaginal effluent. The process can obviously evolve from mild sub-clinical to clinical disease. Chorioamnionitis (Pathologic): inflammation of the fetal membranes is a manifestation of an intrauterine infection and is frequently associated with prolonged membrane rupture and long labors. When mononuclear and polymorphonuclear leukocytes infiltrate the chorion, the resulting microscopic finding is designated chorioamnionitis. Chromatin: an intranuclear and intrachromosomal complex made up to DNA, and histone and nonhistone proteins. Chromomere: one of the serially aligned beads or granules of a eukaryotic chromosome, resulting from local coiling of a continuous DNA thread. Chromosomal Deletion: the loss of part of a chromosome’s DNA. Chromosomal Inversion: chromosome segments that have been turned 180 degrees. The gene sequence for the segment is reversed with respect to the rest of the chromosome. Chromosome: the self-replicating genetic structure of cells containing the cellular DNA that bears in its nucleotide sequence the linear array of genes. In prokaryotes, chromosomal DNA is circular, and the entire genome is carried on one chromosome. Eukaryotic genomes consist of a number of chromosomes whose DNA is associated with different kinds of proteins. Chromosome Painting: attachment of certain fluorescent dyes to targeted parts of the chromosome. Used as a diagnostic for particular diseases, e.g. types of leukemia. Chromosome Region p: a designation for the short arm of a chromosome. Chromosome Region q: a designation for the long arm of a chromosome. Class I, Class II, and Class III MHC Molecules: proteins encoded by genes in the major histocompatibility complex. Cleaning: the physical removal of most microorganisms and contamination, using detergent and water. Clinical Audit, see Outcome: a cyclical evaluation and measurement by health professionals of the clinical standards they are achieving. Clinical Guidelines , see Guidelines: systematically developed statements to assist practitioner and patient decisions about appropriate health care for specific clinical circumstances. Clinical Practice Guidelines: set of systematically developed statements or recommendations designed to assist practitioner and patient in making decisions about appropriate health care for specific clinical circumstances. Such guidelines are designed to assist health care practitioners in the prevention, diagnosis, treatment, and management of specific clinical conditions. Clinical Study: research that focuses on some aspect of a biomedical event, technology, or intervention. Clinical Trials: these are experiments in which the investigator intervenes rather than observes and is the best test of cause-and-effect relationship. The gold standard of clinical trials is the randomized experiment. Randomization is important because it equalizes baseline characteristics of the subjects so that the comparison of the treatments is fair. If randomization is not feasible, possible non-random standards of comparison must include patients similar to the treated group. Randomization is the current norm of demonstrating efficacy and safety of investigational methods. Clinical Trial, Interventional: any research study that prospectively assigns human participants or groups of humans to one or more health-related interventions to evaluate the effects on health outcomes. Interventions include but are not restricted to drugs, cells and other biological products, surgical procedures, radiologic procedures, devices, behavioral treatments, process-of-care changes, preventive care, etc. Clinical Trial Register: the formal record of an internationally agreed minimum amount of information about a clinical trial (trial registration data set). This record is usually stored in and managed using a database. Clinical Trial Registry: the entity that houses the clinical trial register. It is responsible for ensuring the completeness and accuracy of the information the register contains, and that the registered information is used to inform health care decision making. Clonal Selection Theory: the prevalent concept that specificity and diversity of an immune response are the result of selection by antigen of specifically reactive clones from a large repertoire of preformed lymphocytes, each with individual specificities. Clone: an exact copy made of biological material such as a DNA segment (e.g., a gene or other region), a whole cell, or a complete organism. A population of cells derived from a single cell by asexual division. Clone Bank: see — genomic library. Cloning: using specialized DNA technology to produce multiple, exact copies of a single gene or other segment of DNA to obtain enough material for further study. This process, used by researchers in the Human Genome Project, is referred to as cloning DNA. The resulting cloned (copied) collections of DNA molecules are called clone libraries. A second type of cloning exploits the natural process of cell division to make many copies of an entire cell. The genetic makeup of these cloned cells, called a cell line, is identical to the original cell. A third type of cloning produces complete, genetically identical animals such as the famous Scottish sheep, Dolly. See also — cloning vector. Cloning Vector: DNA molecule originating from a virus, a plasmid, or the cell of a higher organism into which another DNA fragment of appropriate size can be integrated without loss of the vector’s capacity for self-replication; vectors introduce foreign DNA into host cells, where the DNA can be reproduced in large quantities. Examples are plasmids, cosmids, and yeast artificial chromosomes; vectors are often recombinant molecules containing DNA sequences from several sources. Closed-Ended Questions: fixed-choice questions that require the respondent to choose a response from the choices provided. Clue Cells: vaginal cells covered with bacteria; commonly present in women who have a vaginal infection. Cluster Sampling: a cluster sample is one in which the whole population being studied is divided into clusters or groups, and a selection of these clusters is then made, and the entire population or a random sample of subjects within these sub-clusters are sampled. (e.g. if the sampling frame was an entire city, then the city would be broken down into city blocks and certain randomly selected city blocks would be sampled instead of the entire city. Code: see — genetic code. Codominance: situation in which two different alleles for a genetic trait are both expressed. See also — autosomal dominant, recessive gene. Co-Dominant: alleles that are different from each other, but both are expressed in the phenotype. Codon: a section of DNA (three nucleotide pairs in length) that codes for a single amino acid. See — genetic code. Cohort Study: an observational study following a group over time, comparing the outcomes of subsets who received different types of care; because random allocation is not used, matching or statistical adjustment at the analysis stage should be used to minimize the influence of factors other than the intervention or factor of interest. Collaborating Register: can be any clinical trial register that registers trials prospectively (that is, before the first participant is recruited). There are 2 types of Collaborating Register: Contributing and Non-Contributing. Colony-Forming Units: hematopoietic progenitors that proliferate and give rise to a colony of hematopoietic cells. Colony-Stimulating Factor: a polypeptide that promotes the growth of hematopoietic progenitors. Co-Insurance (rate), see Cost-Sharing: cost-sharing in the form of a set proportion of the cost of a service. Coisogenic or Congenic: nearly identical strains of an organism; they vary at only a single locus. Command and Control Economy, see Semashko System: either government regulation of a health care market by detailed central planning and fixing of prices, quantities and capacity; or government regulation of a public integrated health care system via line management, with the aim of planning and managing the allocation of resources and the pursuit of efficiency objectives without relying on markets or competition. Commissioning: the process by which the health needs of the population are defined, priorities determined and appropriate services purchased and evaluated. Commissioning Services: the process of identifying the need for services and making a contract with those able to provide them. Committed Cell: a cell committed to the production of specific antibodies to a given antigen determinant. Committed cells include primed cells, memory cells, and antibody-producing cells. Community Effectiveness, see Effectiveness: the ability of a particular medical action to alter the national history of a particular disease for the better, under actual conditions of practice and use. Community Participation: involving the community in an activity such as the planning of projects or carrying out a HIA. There are a number of models of community participation, some of which are outlined in the Gothenburg consensus paper on HIA (WHO, 1999). Community Rating: technique for adjusting insurance premiums according to family size or income. Community Study: used in this document to describe research conducted in a community setting other than a hospital or other health-care facility; a community study may or may not be population based; subjects may include members from one, several, or all of the groups that comprise a community, including: school children or other adolescents, business or professional people, men (in general), women (in general), women of reproductive age, factory workers, members of the clergy, local health-care workers, local politicians or policy-makers, etc. Comparative Genomics: the study of human genetics by comparisons with model organisms such as mice, the fruit fly, and the bacterium E. coli. Comparative Genomic Hybridization: a cytogenetic method based on a combination of fluorescence microscopy and digital image analysis. Differentially labeled test DNA and normal reference DNA are hybridized simultaneously to normal chromosome spreads. Hybridization is detected with two different fluorochromes. Deletion, duplication, or amplifications are seen as changes in the ratio of the intensities of the two fluorochromes along the target chromosomes. Comparative Study: a study whereby one or more characteristics of two or more groups, places, institutions, etc. are compared. Competition: Rivalry between two or more sellers for revenue, market share, or other advantage. Complement (C’): a multifactorial system of one or more normal serum components characterized by their capacity to participate in certain and specific antigen-antibody reactions. Complement Activation: promotion of the killing or lytic actions of complement. Complement Cascade: a precise sequence of events usually triggered by an antigen-antibody complex, in which each component of the complement system is activated in turn. Complement Fixation: the fixation of C’ to an antigen-antibody complex. Complementary DNA (cDNA): DNA that is synthesized in the laboratory from a messenger RNA template. Complementary DNA (cDNA) Probe: a DNA sequence that is exactly complementary to mRNA, lacking introns and regulatory regions. Complementary Sequence: nucleic acid base sequence that can form a double-stranded structure with another DNA fragment by following base-pairing rules (A pairs with T and C with G). The complementary sequence to GTAC for example, is CATG. Complex Trait: trait that has a genetic component that does not follow strict Mendelian inheritance. May involve the interaction of two or more genes or gene-environment interactions. See also — Mendelian inheritance, additive genetic effects. Complicated Abortion: spontaneous or induced abortion that results in complications, such as infection or bleeding. Comprehensive (maxi) HIA: a comprehensive or “maxi” HIA is a much more detailed rigorous exercise than either a rapid or intermediate HIA. It usually involves the participation of the full range of stakeholders, an extensive literature search, secondary analysis of existing data and the collection of new data. “Control” populations may also be used (Parry and Stevens, 2001). Compulsory Health Insurance: health insurance under an obligatory scheme by law, usually with contributions that are income-related. Computational Biology: see — bioinformatics. Concurrent HIA: concurrent HIA is carried out whilst a policy, program or project is being implemented. Confidence Interval (CI): the computed interval with a given probability, i.e., 95%, that the true value of a variable such as a mean, proportion or rate is contained within the interval. Confidence interval (e.g. 95%) represents a range of values within which it is 95% certain that the true population value of the rate is present. The range of values that is believed to contain the true value within a specific level of certainty. Confidentiality: one of the aspects of the responsiveness of health systems whereby privacy in the context of privileged communication (such as patient-doctor consultations) and medical records is safeguarded. In genetics, the expectation that genetic material and the information gained from testing that material will not be available without the donor’s consent. An ethical practice for maintaining privacy and protecting the identity of research subjects. Confounding: a situation in which the effects of two processes are not separated. The distortion of the apparent effect of two processes is not separated. The distortion of the apparent effect of an exposure on risk brought about by the association with other factors that can influence the outcome. A relationship between the effects of two or more casual factors as observed in a set of data such that it is not logically possible to separate the contribution that any single causal factor has made to an effect. A situation in which a measure of the effect of an exposure on risk is distorted because of the association of exposure with other factor(s) that influence the outcome under study. Congenital: any trait present at birth, whether the result of a genetic or nongenetic factor. See also — birth defect. Conjugates: yoked or coupled substances, that is, immunoconjugates, such as monoclonal antibodies conjugates with drugs, toxins, or radioisotopes. Consensus Building: the process by which a group reaches agreement about the best solution to a problem or the best choice among alternative options. Conserved Sequence: a base sequence in a DNA molecule (or an amino acid sequence in a protein) that has remained essentially unchanged throughout evolution. Consultation/Liaison (CL) Services: consultation — referral for mental health assessment and management advice; treatment may be provided by either the consultant or the referring agent. Liaison — mental health service working with patients and health professionals in specific units; usually includes an educational role, collaboration with unit staff, and a good understanding of systems theory; often patients are discussed but not seen. Content Analysis: a form of qualitative data analysis that allows researchers to categorize and report a potentially wide range of symbolic (descriptive) and often explanatory information; various categories of qualitative data may be quantified (where appropriate) and compared to other categories of data. Constitutive Ablation: gene expression that results in cell death. Constitutive Heterochromatin: condensed genetically inactive chromatin located in the same regions of both homologous chromosomes. Contributing Register: a Contributing Register is a Collaborating Register that makes data available for inclusion in the Central Repository. There are 2 types of Contributing Register: Primary and Partner registers. Control Site: a data-collection site that is similar to a second data-collection site except for one or more defined variables that are explicitly different at the second (or intervention) site. Consultation: a technique of social interaction where opinions of all stakeholders are sought before a decision is made. Consumer: a buyer or user of goods or services in the economy. Someone who uses, is affected by, or who is entitled or compelled to use a health related service. Consumer Satisfaction: a measurement that obtains reports or ratings from consumers about services received from an organization; in this context, this often means from a hospital, physician or health care provider. Consumer Sovereignty: the overall power that consumers can have in a market to control the nature, quality and volume of goods and services produced, by the act of purchasing only those goods and services for which they are willing and able to pay. Contig: group of cloned (copied) pieces of DNA representing overlapping regions of a particular chromosome. Contig Map: a map depicting the relative order of a linked library of overlapping clones representing a complete chromosomal segment. Contiguous Gene Deletion Syndrome: a syndrome caused by a deletion involving genes that are physically located together in a chromosome segment. Continuous Urinary Incontinence: report that a person has leaked urine without sensation or precipitating factors such as exertion or effort. Absence of sensation may be due to neurologic disorder. Contract: agreement between payer(s) and provider(s) which define in advance the health services to be purchased, the quantity, quality and price. Contract Model , in contrast to Integrated Model: the system of health service provision which involves contracts between three separate parties: a) the beneficiaries; or patients; b) the fund-holders or purchasers acting on behalf of the beneficiaries; and c) the providers of services. Contracting-Out: services requested under contract from one provider (often a hospital) to a specialized one (e.g., for laundry), independent of ownership. Contribution: monies paid by or on behalf of insured persons to a health insurer to purchase the coverage of a defined range of services (the benefit package). Convenience Sample: a non-probability sample that is drawn based on convenience rather than representation of a larger population. Coordination: a technique of social interaction where various processes are considered simultaneously and their evolution arranged for the optimum benefit of the whole. Co-Payment, see Cost-Sharing, Co-Insurance: cost-sharing in the form of a fixed amount to be paid for a service. Cosmid: artificially constructed cloning vector containing the cos gene of phage lambda. Cosmids can be packaged in lambda phage particles for infection into E. coli; this permits cloning of larger DNA fragments (up to 45kb) than can be introduced into bacterial hosts in plasmid vectors. Cost(s): the value of the resources used in an activity, also the benefits sacrificed through a particular event of choice of action rather than another. Cost Containment: measures taken to reduce expenditure or the rate of growth of expenditure, or the unit cost of services. Cost of Illness (study): total costs incurred by a society due to a specific disease. Cost Shifting: the process of using excess revenues from one set of services or patients to subsidise other services or patient groups. Cost Study: a research study that helps document and explain cost and resource utilization. Coverage: share of population eligible for health care benefits (in-kind) under public programs. Cox Proportional Hazard Regression Analysis: it is a technique for assessing the association between variables and survival rate. The measure of risk provided for each variable is the risk ratio (RR). A risk ratio of 1 means that the risk is the same for each participant. A risk ratio greater than 1 indicates increased risk; a ratio less than 1 indicates less risk. This type of analysis is usually presented in a table. Cream Skimming, in contrast to Adverse Selection: a process whereby an insurer tries to select the most favorable individuals with expected losses below the premium charged (or the capitation payment received) in order to increase profits. Created Capital: physical infrastructure, buildings, machinery and equipment. Crossing Over: the breaking during meiosis of one maternal and one paternal chromosome, the exchange of corresponding sections of DNA, and the rejoining of the chromosomes. This process can result in an exchange of alleles between chromosomes. See also — recombination. Cross-Sectional Design: studies in which data are collected at one point in time. Cross Sectional Study: a study that measures the prevalence of a disease or risk factor is a population at a given point in time. Cross-Tabulations: a method of analyzing the relationships between dependent and independent variables. Cross-tabulations are presented in tables with one category of variable (usually the dependent variable) presented across the top (or row) and categories of another variable (usually the independent variable) presented in the left-hand column (also known as contingency tables). Crude Birth Rate: the ratio between the number of live births in a population during a given year and the total mid-year population for the same year, usually multiplied by 1,000. Technical Note: Population data from the United Nations correspond to mid-year estimated values, obtained by linear interpolation from the corresponding United Nations fertility medium-variant quinquennial population projections. Crude Death Rate: the ratio between the number of deaths in a population during a given year and the total mid-year population for the same year, usually multiplied by 1,000. Technical Note: Population data from the United Nations correspond to mid-year estimated values, obtained by linear interpolation from the corresponding United Nations fertility medium-variant quinquennial population projections. Crude Prevalence Rate: a crude prevalence rate is defined as the number of specified risk factor occurrences (i.e. daily smokers) over a specified period to time (e.g. a year) divided by the total population sampled. Crude prevalence rates are usually expressed as per cent of population sampled and may be calculated for males, females, persons or some other subset of the population. Cryopreservation: storage by freezing. Curd-like Vaginal Discharge: whitish vaginal discharge, like cottage cheese; common in yeast infection. Cystitis: irritation or inflammation (swelling of the bladder usually caused by an infection. Cystocele: intrusion or bulging of the bladder into the vagina, usually caused when the vaginal muscles that support the bladder and urethra are stretched or damaged. Cystometry: test used to assess the function of the bladder by measuring the pressure or volume as the bladder is slowly being filled. Cystometry is used to assess detrusor activity, sensation, capacity, and compliance. There are different variations of the test depending on the problem being investigated, but regardless of the technique, cystometry involves insertion of a catheter into the bladder. Cystoscopy: procedure used to diagnose urinary tract disorders and provide a direct view of the urethra and bladder by inserting a thin, flexible telescope-like instrument into the urethra and then into the morning. Cytogenetics: the study of the physical appearance of chromosomes. See also — karyotype. Cytokines: cell-derived regulatory molecules. Cytological Band: an area of the chromosome that stains differently from areas around it. See also — cytological map. Cytological Map: a type of chromosome map whereby genes are located on the basis of cytological findings obtained with the aid of chromosome mutations. Cytoplasmic (Uniparental) Inheritance: see — cytoplasmic trait. Cytoplasmic Signal Transduction Molecules: proteins within the cytoplasm of cells responsible for transmitting signals from one event to the next event. Cytoplasmic Trait: a genetic characteristic in which the genes are found outside the nucleus, in chloroplasts or mitochondria. Results in offspring inheriting genetic material from only one parent. Cytophilic Antibodies: antibodies with an affinity for cells that depend on bonding forces independent of those that bind antigen to antibody. Cytosine (C): a nitrogenous base, one member of the base pair GC (guanine and cytosine) in DNA. See also — base pair, nucleotide.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Data: information collected to answer research questions. Data Analysis: the process of answering research questions through the qualitative and quantitative manipulation of data. Data Collectors: persons trained to collect data (or information). Data Interchange Standard: a set of rules for sending information between machines. Includes agreement and standardization on the concepts exchanged (e.g., “primary sponsor”), and agreement and standardization on the structure of the actual message that is exchanged. Data Warehouse: a collection of databases, data tables, and mechanisms to access the data on a single subject. D Cell (Double Cell): lymphocytes that appear to have characteristics of both T and B cells. Decentralization: changing relations within and between a variety of organizational structures/ bodies, resulting in the transfer of the authority to plan, make decisions or manage public functions from the national level to any organization or agency at the sub-national level. Decision Making: the process of reviewing the findings and recommendations of a HIA and making choices about how they should be taken forward. Decreased Bladder Compliance: failure to store urine in the bladder caused by the loss of bladder wall elasticity and of bladder accommodation. This condition may result from radiation cystitis or from inflammatory bladder conditions such as chemical cystitis, interstitial cystitis, and certain neurologic bladder disorders. Decubitus Ulcer: area of local tissue necrosis (death or damage) that usually develops where soft tissues are compressed between bony prominences and any external surface for prolonged periods. Deductible: cost-sharing in the form of a fixed amount which must be paid for a service or of total cost incurred over a defined period by a covered person before the third-party payer then covers all of or a percentage of the rest of the cost. Defecation: act of emptying the bowels or having a bowel movement. Defining Goal: the single most characteristic and specific reason for setting up a system, its raison d’être. Dehydration: state that occurs when not enough fluid is present to fulfill the body’s fluid needs. Deinstitutionalization: the transfer of patients from institutional settings to community settings. Delayed Hypersensitivity: a specific sensitive state characterized by a delay of many hours in initiation time and course of reaction. It is transferable with cell but not with serum. Delegation: giving an authority the right to plan and implement decisions relating to particular activities without direct supervision by a higher authority. Deletion: a mutation that is generated by removal of a sequence of DNA, with the regions on either side being joined together. A loss of part of the DNA from a chromosome; can lead to a disease or abnormality. See also — chromosome, mutation. Deletion Map: a description of a specific chromosome that uses defined mutations –specific deleted areas in the genome– as ‘biochemical signposts,’ or markers for specific areas. Dementia: general loss of short- and long-term memory and mental deterioration. It may affect emotions, abstract thinking, judgment, impulse control, and learning and can cause functional incontinence. Demography: the quantitative and qualitative study of population dynamics. Dendritic Cells: white blood cells found in the spleen and other lymphoid organs. Dendritic cells typically use thread-like tentacles to enmesh antigens, which they present to T cells. Dentists Ratio: the number of dentists available per every 10,000 inhabitants in a population, at a given year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Deoxyribonucleotide: see — nucleotide. Deoxyribose: a type of sugar that is one component of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Dependency Ratio: indicator used in population studies to measure the portion of the population which is economically dependent on active age group. It is calculated as the sum of 0-14 year olds and over 60 or 65 year olds, depending on the working age limit considered, divided by the number of people aged betwe15 and 59 or 64, respectively. For the purpose of the World Health Report, it is calculated as the sum of 0-14 year olds and over 65 year olds divided by the number of people aged betwe15 and 64. Dependant: the spouse, children or other close relatives of a person covered by a health plan who are covered free of additional taxes, contributions or premiums. Dependent Variable: the variable which the researcher wants to predict or explain. Descriptive Data: data or information that describe “who”, “what”, “where”, or “how many”. Desensitization: the procedure of rendering a sensitive individual insensitive to an antigen or hapten by treatment with that specific agent. Design Effect: a specific form of bias attributable to intra-class correlation in CLUSTER SAMPLING. The design effect for a cluster design is the ratio of the prevalence for that design to the variance calculated from a simple random sample random sample of the same size. Determinant Group: the part of the structure of an antigen molecule that is responsible for specific interaction with antibody molecules evoked by the same or a similar antigen. Determinants of Health: determinants of health are factors which influence health status and determine health differentials or health inequalities. They are many and varied and include, for example, · natural, biological factors, such as age, gender and ethnicity; x behavior and lifestyles, such as smoking, alcohol consumption, diet and physical exercise; x the physical and social environment, including housing quality, the workplace and the wider urban and rural environment; and x access to health care. (Lalonde, 1974; Labonté 1993) All of these are closely interlinked and differentials in their distribution lead to health inequalities. Detrusor: smooth muscle bladder wall that stretches to accommodate and store urine and contracts uniformly to expel of urine. Detrusor Hyperactivity with Impaired Bladder Contractility (DHIC): condition characterized by involuntary detrusor contractions in which patients either are unable to empty their bladders completely or can empty their bladders completely only when straining, due to poor contractility of the detrusor. Detrusor Overactivity: urodynamic observation characterized by involuntary detrusor contractions during bladder filling, which may be spontaneous or provoked. Detrusor Overactivity Incontinence: incontinence due to an involuntary detrusor contraction. Detrusor Sphincter Dyssynergia (DSD): inappropriate contraction of the urethral and/or periurethral striated sphincter concurrent with an involuntary contraction of the detrusor. Occasionally voiding may be prevented altogether. Detrusor Underactivity: contraction of reduced strength and/or duration, resulting in prolonged bladder emptying and/or failure to achieve complete bladder emptying within a normal time span. Devolution: Involves passing responsibility and a degree of independence to regional or local government, with or without financial responsibility (i.e. the ability to raise and spend revenues). Diabetic Neuropathy: condition in which portions of the spinal cord and its nerves have degenerated as a result of diabetes. Diagnosis-Related Group (DRG): a way of categorizing patients according to diagnosis and intensity of resources required, usually for the period of one hospital stay. Diagnosis-Based Payment: refers to a mechanism whereby the provider or health care organization receives a fixed, pre-specified payment for each instance in which they treat an individual with a specified diagnosis. Diagnostic Studies: exploratory studies; studies that help develop the context of a specific issue or problem. Differentiation: the process of acquiring individual characteristics, as occurs in progressive diversification of cells and tissues of the developing pre-embryo and embryo. Dignity: the right of individuals to be treated with respect as persons in their own right. Dilatation and Curettage: a technique that may be used for induced abortion. It involves stretching the cervical channel and scraping the interior of the uterine cavity to remove products of conception. Diploid: a full set of genetic material consisting of paired chromosomes, one from each parental set. A cell having two chromosome sets, one maternal and one paternal, twice the haploid number (in humans, 46). Most animal cells except the gametes have a diploid set of chromosomes. The diploid human genome has 46 chromosomes. See also — haploid. Direct Methods: methods or questions that explicitly expose the data collector’s true intentions. Directed Evolution: a laboratory process used on isolated molecules or microbes to cause mutations and identify subsequent adaptations to novel environments. Directed Mutagenesis: alteration of DNA at a specific site and its reinsertion into an organism to study any effects of the change. Directed Sequencing: successively sequencing DNA from adjacent stretches of chromosome. Disadvantaged / Vulnerable / Marginalized Groups: these terms are applied to groups of people who, due to factors usually considered outside their control, do not have the same opportunities as other, more fortunate groups in society. Examples might include unemployed people, refugees and others who are socially excluded. Disability-Adjusted Life Expectancy: the number of healthy years of life that can be expected on average in a given population. It is generally calculated at birth, but estimates can also be prepared at other ages. Healthy life expectancy has the advantage of capturing all causes of disability across a population and relating them to life expectancy defined by mortality. Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs): the number of healthy years of life lost due to premature death and disability. A unit for measuring both the global burden of disease and the effectiveness of health interventions, as indicated by reductions in the disease burden. It is calculated as the present value of the future years of disability-free life that are lost as the result of the premature deaths or cases of disability occurring in a particular year. Discharge: the official termination of a patient’s stay in a hospital or other medical facility to which one has been admitted. Disease-Associated Genes: alleles carrying particular DNA sequences associated with the presence of disease. Disimpaction: act of removing stool from the rectum, which could not be eliminated normally. Disinfection: treatment of objects or surfaces to remove or inactivate organisms such as vegetative bacteria, viruses and fungi, but not spores. Disinfection can be achieved by heat, by immersion in boiling water or by applying certain antiseptics. Dispensary: a specialized ambulatory facility which can be assigned to a hospital or serve as an independent institution. Distribution: the complete summary of the frequencies of the values or categories of a measurement made on a group of persons. The distribution tells either how many or what proportion of the group was found to have each value (or range of values) out of all the possible values that the quantitative measure can have. Diuresis: production of excessive amounts of urine that may precipitate urinary incontinence or overactive bladder. Can be caused by medical problems such as diabetes mellitus and edema. Diuretic: agent (e.g., drug, alcohol, caffeine) that increases urination by causing the kidneys to secrete more fluid from the blood. Diverticula: pouches in the walls of organs that, if found in the bladder or urethra, can hold excess urine and become infected or inflamed. DMFT Index at Age 12: the mean number of permanent teeth decayed, filled and missing (DMFT) in children at age 12, in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): a double-helical structure composed of two coils of nucleotide chains connected by nitrogen bases. The molecule that encodes genetic information. DNA is a double-stranded molecule held together by weak bonds between base pairs of nucleotides. The four nucleotides in DNA contain the bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In nature, base pairs form only between A and T and between G and C; thus the base sequence of each single strand can be deduced from that of its partner. DNA Bank: a service that stores DNA extracted from blood samples or other human tissue. DNA Hybridization: a process whereby labeled nucleic acid molecules (oligonucleotide probe) bind to a DNA sequence on a target (Southern blot, metaphase chromosomes, or interphase nuclei) that is complementary to its own. DNA Methylation: a process for control of tissue specific gene expression. Methylation “turns off” the regulatory region of a gene, thereby preventing DNA transcription. DNA Probe: a short segment of DNA in which the base sequence is specifically complementary to a particular gene segment. The probe is used, for example, on the Southern blot assay to determine whether a certain gene is present in a tumor sample undergoing DNA analysis. See — probe. DNA Repair Genes: genes encoding proteins that correct errors in DNA sequencing. DNA Replication: the use of existing DNA as a template for the synthesis of new DNA strands. In humans and other eukaryotes, replication occurs in the cell nucleus. DNA Sequence: the relative order of base pairs, whether in a DNA fragment, gene, chromosome, or an entire genome. See also — base sequence analysis. Domain: a discrete portion of a protein with its own function. The combination of domains in a single protein determines its overall function. Dominant: an allele that is almost always expressed, even if only one copy is present. See also — gene, genome. Domus Unit: small community-based residential facilities that seek to maintain residents’ independence and residual capacities through active participation. Donors: people providing either sperm or ova. Dosimetry: the term applied to the measurement and calculation of dose that the patient receives. Double Helix: the twisted-ladder shape that two linear strands of DNA assume when complementary nucleotides on opposing strands bond together. Draft Sequence: the sequence generated by the HGP as of June 2000 that, while incomplete, offers a virtual road map to an estimated 95% of all human genes. Draft sequence data are mostly in the form of 10,000 base pair-sized fragments whose approximate chromosomal locations are known. See also — sequencing, finished DNA sequence, working draft DNA sequence. Dry Sex: a sexual practice that involves penetrative vaginal sex where the woman has a dry vagina. Sometimes herbs are used to increase the dryness. Dry sex increases the risks of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Dual Method Use: using a barrier method for protection against sexually transmitted infection and another method for contraception. Dual Protection: prevention of both STI/HIV infection and unwanted pregnancy. This can be achieved by the correct and consistent use of condoms alone or by the simultaneous use of two methods, one of which must be a condom. Dual Risk: risk of both pregnancy and STI/HIV. Dysmaturity Syndrome: a dysmature fetus is characterized by wasting of subcutaneous tissue, meconium staining, peeling or desquamating skin, long fingernails, and often an alert facial expression; some are said to have “parchment-like” skin. Dyspareunia: painful intercourse. Dysuria: difficult or painful urination.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Earmarked Taxes: taxes which are collected with the specific purpose of using them for health care. Economic Impact Assessment: economic impact assessment involves exploring and identifying the ways in which the economy in general, or local economic circumstances in particular, will be affected by a policy, program or project. Economics: the study of how individuals and societies choose to allocate scarce productive resources among competing alternative uses and to distribute the products from these uses among the members of the society. Economic Analysis/ Evaluation: analyses which involve the allocation of scarce resources among competing alternative uses and the distribution of the products from these uses among the members of the society. Economies of Scale, in contrast to Economies of Scope: the average cost per unit decreases as output increases. Economies of Scope, in contrast to Economies of Scale: benefits of producing multiple goods or services (i.e., if it is cheaper to produce both good X and good Y together rather than separately). Economic Outcome, see Health Outcome: a consequence of the use of health care products, services, or programs that affect costs from any of several perspectives. Ectopic Pregnancy: a pregnancy in which the fertilized egg implants outside of the uterus, and the placenta and fetus begin to develop there. The most common site is within a fallopian tube. Eczema: pruritic dermatitis that occurs as a reaction to a drug or some other skin contact. Characterized in the acute state by an erythema; edema associated with serious exudates between the cells of the epidermis; and an inflammatory infiltrate in the dermis, causing oozing, vesiculation, crusting, and scaling of the epidermis. Effectiveness: a measure of the extent to which a specific intervention, procedure, regimen, or service, when deployed in the field in routine circumstances, does what it is intended to do for a specified population. Whether services deliver the outcome(s) in the way that is claimed in actual practice; does it do more good than harm. Efficacy: the benefit of using a technology for a particular problem under ideal conditions, for example, in a laboratory setting, with in the protocol of a carefully managed randomized controlled trial, or at a “center of excellence.” Whether services deliver the outcome(s) in the way that is claimed in ideal conditions; can it work. Efficiency: the capacity to produce the maximum output for a given input. e-Health: it is the transfer of health resources and health care by electronic means. It encompasses three main areas: The delivery of health information, for health professionals and health consumers, through the Internet and telecommunications. Using the power of IT and e-commerce to improve public health services, e.g. through the education and training of health workers. The use of e-commerce and e-business practices in health systems management. Elasticity: the ratio of substitution between two factors such as quantity of goods demanded and its price to the consumer. Electrical Stimulation: application of electric current to stimulate or inhibit the pelvic floor muscles or their nerve supply in order to induce a direct therapeutic response. Electromyography (EMG): diagnostic test used to measure the electrical activity of muscles. Electron Volt (eV): the energy of motion acquired by an electron accelerated through a potential difference of 1 volt. Electrophoresis: a method of separating large molecules (such as DNA fragments or proteins) from a mixture of similar molecules. An electric current is passed through a medium containing the mixture, and each kind of molecule travels through the medium at a different rate, depending on its electrical charge and size. Agarose and acrylamide gels are the media commonly used for electrophoresis of proteins and nucleic acids. Electroporation: a process using high-voltage current to make cell membranes permeable to allow the introduction of new DNA; commonly used in recombinant DNA technology. See also — transfection. Embryonic Disc: the group of cells from which the embryo will develop, usually visible at the end of the first week of development after fertilization in humans. Embryonic Stem (ES) Cells: an embryonic cell that can replicate indefinitely, transform into other types of cells, and serve as a continuous source of new cells. Emergency Admission: a patient admitted on the same day that admission is requested. Employment Zone: 15 Employment Zones (EZs) were launched in March 2000 in areas experiencing high levels of long term unemployment in order to help long term unemployed people get and keep work. Employment Zones pool funds for training, Employment Service support and the equivalent of benefit to maximize flexibility and choice. The areas selected were amongst the worst 150 unitary authorities or local authority districts in Great Britain when ranked by a composite measure of the share of unemployed claimants aged 25+ who were long term unemployed, the employment rate and the number of people unemployed for over two years as a percentage of the working age population based on 1997 data. Participants in the EZ schemes work with a personal adviser to establish their needs and identify any barriers preventing them from moving into sustainable work. A costed action plan is then drawn up between adviser and participant. Once the participant has started work, they continue to be supported to ensure that their move into employment is sustained where possible. A range of different organizations were contracted through a tendering process to administer the zones and their performance is monitored and linked to the funding process (Department for Work and Pensions, 2002). Endonuclease: see — restriction enzyme. Enhancement Factor: see blocking factor. Enhancing Antibodies: antibodies that enhance the survival of a graft or of a tumor. Enterocele: prolapse or falling down of the intestines into the vagina. Entitlements: benefits in-kind or cash benefits to which beneficiaries are entitled by law with little regard to actual contributions or premiums, or income qualifications. Enuresis: involuntary loss of urine (urinary incontinence). Environmental Impact Assessment: environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a well developed discipline, both in terms of theory and practice, having been in operation for nearly 30 years in the United States (Glasson et al. 1994). Its origins lie in the US National Environmental Policy Acts of 1969. In the same way that HIA explores the effect of policies, programs and projects on health, EIA does the same in terms of environmental effects. In many countries, including those of the European Union, there is now a statutory requirement for EIA to be undertaken under certain circumstances. The rules vary from country to country but generally EIA should lead to proposals which are likely to have any significant adverse effects on the environment being abandoned or modified (Hendley et al., 1998). There are numerous definitions of EIA, including the following an assessment of the impact of a planned activity on the environment (UN Economic Commission for Europe, 1991 in Glasson et al, 1994) the process of evaluating the likely environmental consequences of a proposed major action significantly affecting the natural and man-made environment (Walthern 1988, cited in Wood 1995) a technique and a process by which information about the environmental effects of a project is collected, both by the developed and from other sources, and taken into account by the planning authority in forming their judgments about whether the development should go ahead (Department of the Environment, Welsh Office 1989) Enzyme: a protein that acts as a catalyst, speeding the rate at which a biochemical reaction proceeds but not altering the direction or nature of the reaction. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent (ELISA): the assay in which an enzyme is linked to an antibody and a colored substrate is used to measure the activity of bound enzyme and the amount of bound antibody. Epidemiology: the study of the incidence and distribution of disease. The study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study to control health problems. Epididymitis: inflammation of the epididymis; occasional complication of untreated urethral infection. Epigenetic: non-DNA/RNA related process that affects genotype and phenotype (ie, methalization). Episiotomy: surgical incision into the perineum between the vagina and anus to ease childbirth through the vagina. Epistasis: one gene interferes with or prevents the expression of another gene located at a different locus. Epithelialize: to become covered with epithelial tissue (to heal). Epitope: an alternative term for antigenic determinant. Equality: principle by which all persons or things under consideration are treated in the same way. Equality of Child Survival: a composite index based on the distribution of child survival across countries and intended to provide a summary measure of countries’ achievements in the distribution of health. Equity: principle of being fair to all, with reference to a defined and recognized set of values. Equity in Health: inequity — as opposed to inequality — has a moral and ethical dimension, resulting from avoidable and unjust differentials in health status. Equity in health implies that ideally everyone should have a fair opportunity to attain their full health potential and, more pragmatically, that no one should be disadvantaged from achieving this potential if it can be avoided. (WHO EURO, 1985) More succinctly, Equity is concerned with creating equal opportunities for health and with bringing health differentials down to the lowest possible level. (Whitehead, 1990). HIA is usually underpinned by an explicit value system and a focus on social justice in which equity plays a major role so that not only both health inequalities and inequities in health are explored and addressed wherever possible (Barnes and Scott-Samuel, 1999). Escherichia coli: common bacterium that has been studied intensively by geneticists because of its small genome size, normal lack of pathogenicity, and ease of growth in the laboratory. Essential Drugs: a policy initiative to ensure that a minimal number of effective drugs are available to treat priority health problems at a cost which can be afforded by the community. Estimated General Mortality Rate: the estimated total number of deaths in a population of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Estimated Incidence of Malignant Neoplasms of the Cervix Uteri, Adjusted: the ratio of the number of new cases from malignant neoplasms of the cervix uteri (ICD-9 code 179; ICD-10 code C53) estimated in a specific year among the female population, to the number of residents in that population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Estimated Incidence of Malignant Neoplasms of the Female Breast, Adjusted: the ratio of the number of new cases from malignant neoplasms of the female breast (ICD-9 code 174; ICD-10 code C50) estimated in a specific year among the female population, to the number of residents in that population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Estimated Incidence of Malignant Neoplasms of the Lung, Adjusted: the ratio of the number of new cases from malignant neoplasms of the lung (ICD-9 code 162; ICD-10 codes C33-C34; both including trachea and bronchus) estimated in a specific year among the population of a given sex, to the number of residents in that population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Estimated Incidence of Malignant Neoplasms of the Stomach, Adjusted: the ratio of the number of new cases from malignant neoplasms of the stomach (ICD-9 code 151; ICD-10 code C16) estimated in a specific year among a population of a given sex, to the number of residents in that population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Estimated Mortality Rate from Accidents, Excluding Transport Accidents: the estimated total number deaths from accidents, excluding transport accidents, in the total population of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 codes E850-E949 or to ICD-10 codes W00-X59. Estimated Mortality Rate from Cerebrovascular Diseases: the estimated total number deaths from cerebrovascular diseases in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 codes 430-438 or ICD-10 codes I60-I69. Estimated Mortality Rate from Communicable Diseases, Adjusted by Age: the estimated total number of deaths from communicable diseases in a population of a given sex divided by the corresponding total number of this population, after removing the effect of differences in the age distribution, expressed per 100,000 population for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are: ICD-9 Chapter I (codes 001-139) or ICD-10 Chapter I (A00-B99), plus acute respiratory infections (ICD-9 codes 460-466, 480-487; ICD-10 codes J00-J22) and meningitis (CIE-9 codes 320-322; ICD-10 codes G00-G03). Estimated Mortality Rate from Communicable Diseases: the estimated total number of deaths from communicable diseases in a population of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. The cause categories grouped under this heading are Chapter I, ICD9 (codes 001-139) and ICD10 Chapter I (A00-B99), plus acute respiratory infections (ICD9 codes 460-466, 480-487; ICD10 codes J00-J22) and meningitis (CIE9 codes 320-322; ICD10 codes G00-G03). Estimated Mortality Rate from Diseases of the Circulatory System, Age Adjusted: the estimated total number of deaths from diseases of the circulatory system in the total population or by a given sex, divided by the corresponding total number of this population, after removing the effect of differences in the age distribution, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 Chapter VIII (codes 390-459) and ICD-10 Chapter IX (codes I00-I99). Estimated Mortality Rate from Diseases of the Circulatory System: the estimated total number deaths from diseases of the circulatory system in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 Chapter VIII (codes 390-459) or ICD-10 Chapter IX (codes I00-I99). Estimated Mortality Rate from Cirrhosis and Other Chronic Liver Diseases: the estimated total number deaths from cirrhosis and other chronic liver diseases, in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under the ICD-9 code 571 or to ICD-10 codes K70, K73-K74, K76. Estimated Mortality Rate from Diabetes Mellitus: the estimated total number deaths from diabetes mellitus, in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under the ICD-9 code 250 or to ICD-10 codes E10-E14. Estimated Mortality Rate from External Causes: the estimated total number deaths from external causes in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under the ICD-9 supplementary classification of external causes of injuries and poisonings (codes E800-E999) or ICD-10 Chapter XX (codes V01-Y89). Estimated Mortality Rate from External Causes, Adjusted by Age: the estimated total number of deaths from external causes in the total population or of a given sex, divided by the total number of this population, after removing the effect of differences in the age distribution, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under the ICD-9 supplementary classification of external causes of injuries and poisonings (codes E800-E999) or ICD-10 Chapter XX (codes V01-Y89). Estimated Mortality Rate from Homicide: the estimated total number deaths from homicide and injury purposely inflicted, and injury due to legal intervention or war operations, in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 codes E960-E969, or to ICD-10 codes X85-Y09, Y87.1. Estimated Mortality Rate from Ischemic Heart Disease: the estimated total number of deaths from ischemic heart disease in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. The cause categories grouped under this heading are: ICD-9 codes 410-414 or ICD-10 codes I20-I25. Estimated Mortality Rate from Malignant Neoplasms: the estimated total number deaths from malignant neoplasms in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 codes 140-208 or ICD-10 codes C00-C97. Estimated Mortality Rate from Malignant Neoplasms, Adjusted by Age: the estimated total number of deaths from malignant neoplasms in the total population or of a given sex, divided by the total number of this population, after removing the effect of differences in the age distribution, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 codes 140-208 or ICD-10 codes C00-C97. Estimated mortality Rate from Malignant Neoplasms of the Breast, Female: the estimated total number deaths from malignant neoplasms of the female breast in a female population of a given age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under the ICD-9 code 174 or the ICD-10 code C50. Estimated Mortality Rate from Malignant Neoplasms of the Digestive Organs and Peritoneum: the estimated total number deaths from malignant neoplasms of the digestive organs and peritoneum in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 codes 150-159 or ICD-10 codes C15-C26. Estimated Mortality Rate from Malignant Neoplasms of the Lung, Trachea and Bronchi: the estimated total number deaths from malignant neoplasms of the lung, trachea, and bronchus in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under the ICD-9 code 162 or ICD-10 codes C33-C34. Estimated Mortality Rate from Malignant Neoplasms of the Uterus, Female: the estimated total number deaths from malignant neoplasms of the uterus in a female population of a given age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 codes 179-180, 182, or ICD-10 codes C53-C55. Estimated Mortality Rate from Neoplasms, Adjusted by Age: the estimated total number of deaths from neoplasms in the total population or of a given sex, divided by the total number of this population, after removing the effect of differences in the age distribution, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 Chapter II (codes 140-239) or ICD-10 Chapter II (codes C00-D48). Estimated Mortality Rate from Neoplasms, Total: the estimated total number deaths from neoplasms in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 Chapter II (codes 140-239) or ICD-10 Chapter II (codes C00-D48). Estimated Mortality Rate from Suicide and Purposely Self-Inflicted Injuries: the estimated total number deaths from suicide and purposely self-inflicted injuries, in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 codes E950-E959 or to ICD-10 codes X60-X84. Estimated Mortality Rate from Transport Accidents: the estimated total number deaths from transport accidents, in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 codes E800-E848 or to ICD-10 codes V01-V99. Estimated Mortality Rate due to Tuberculosis: the estimated number of deaths in total or by sex from tuberculosis, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100.000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area (ICD-9 codes 010-018; ICD-10 codes A15-A19). Estrogen: hormone produced primarily by the ovaries. Estrogen is believed to play a major role in maintaining the strength and tone of the pelvic floor. Eugenics: the study of improving a species by artificial selection; usually refers to the selective breeding of humans. Eukaryote: cell or organism with membrane-bound, structurally discrete nucleus and other well-developed sub-cellular compartments. Eukaryotes include all organisms except viruses, bacteria, and blue-green algae. See also — prokaryote, chromosome. Evaluation: the process of collecting and analyzing information at regular intervals about the effectiveness and impact of the program. Evidence Base: the evidence base refers to a body of information, drawn from routine statistical analyses, published studies and “grey” literature, which tells us something about what is already known about factors affecting health. For example, in the field of housing and health there are a number of studies which demonstrate the links between damp and cold housing and respiratory disease and, increasingly, the links between high quality housing and quality of life (Thomson et al., 2001). Evidence-Based Health Care: evidence-based health care is the conscientious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients or the delivery of health services. Current best evidence is up-to-date information from relevant, valid research about the effects of different forms of health care, the potential for harm from exposure to particular agents, the accuracy of diagnostic tests, and the predictive power of prognostic factors. Evidence-Based Medicine: the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients. As much as possible, medical decisions should be based on quality evidence. The best evidence is a properly designed randomized controlled trial. Evolutionarily Conserved: see — conserved sequence. Excitation: the moving of an electron to a more distant orbit within the same action. Exon: a region of a gene made up to DNA sequences that will be transcribed into mRNA. The protein-coding DNA sequence of a gene. The region of DNA coding for a protein or a segment of a protein. See also — intron. Exogenous DNA: DNA originating outside an organism that has been introduced into the organism. Exonuclease: an enzyme that cleaves nucleotides sequentially from free ends of a linear nucleic acid substrate. Expansion: (see Hereditary Unstable DNA). Experience Rating: setting a group premium based on the actual losses experienced by that group during the prior year or years. Experimental Research Design: “true” experimental research designs allow researchers to test a hypothesis by introducing a manipulated change (independent variable) into a system (a group of subjects, hospital or community setting) and subsequently assess the impact of that change on a dependent variable — ideally, all other phenomena that might affect change in the dependent variable under study are eliminated through internal control mechanisms. One of the primary features of experimental design is the random assignment of subjects. Explanatory Data: data or information that explain “why” and/or “how”. Expressed Gene: see — gene expression. Expressed Sequence Tag (EST): a short strand of DNA that is a part of a cDNA molecule and can act as identifier of a gene. Used in locating and mapping genes. See also — cDNA, sequence tagged site. Expressivity: the degree to which a genotype is expressed in the phenotype (range of phenotypic features). Externality: the result of an activity that causes incidental benefits (desirable effects) or damages (costs, pollution) to others with no corresponding compensation provided or paid by those who generate the externality. External (Condom) Catheters: devices made from latex, rubber, polyvinyl, or silicone that is used for externally draining the bladder. They are secured on the shaft of the penis by some form of adhesive and connected to urine collecting bags by a tube. Also called penile sheaths. External Sphincter: band of muscle downstream from the internal sphincter that is responsible for maintaining urinary and fecal continence. External Validity: a study is externally valid or generalizable if it can produce unbiased inferences regarding a target population (beyond the subjects in the study). This aspect of validity is only meaningful with regard to a specified external target population. For example, the results of a study conducted using only white male subjects might or might not be generalizable to all human males (the target population consisting of all human males). It is not generalizable to females (the target population consisting of all people).Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Fab (Fragment Antigen Binding): that segment of the IgG antibody molecule, derived by papain treatment and reduction, containing only one antibody reaction site. Under oxidizing conditions, Fab fragments recombine to form the divalent molecule F (ab’) 2 devoid of the Fc segment of the original molecule. Fair Financing: one of the three intrinsic goals of a health system whereby every member of society should pay the same share of their disposable income to cover their health costs. Fairness: the attitude of being just to all. Fairness of Financial Contribution: index used to measure the distribution of the households’ health financing contribution. Fc: fragment of antibody without antigen-binding sites, generated by cleavage by papain; the Fc fragments recombine the C-terminal domains of the immunoglobulin heavy chains. Fecal Impaction: large amount of hardened stool in the rectum that an individual is unable to pass. A fecal impaction may present as small amounts of watery and incontinent stool. Fecal Incontinence: accidental and involuntary loss of liquid or solid stool or gas from the anus. Feces: waste material from the intestines. Feces are composed of bacteria, undigested food, and material sloughed from the intestines. Fee-For-Service: payments to a provider for each act or service rendered. Fee Schedule: a list of approved fees for each service promulgated by an insurance company, government agency, or professional society. Female Reproductive Tract: includes vulva, vagina, uterine cavity and the fallopian tubes. Fertility Rate: indicator used in population studies to assess the average number of children women have in a given population. Fertilization: the process which renders gametes capable of further development; it begins with the sperm contacts the plasma membrane of the oocyte and ends with the formation of the zygote. Filial Generation (F1, F2): each generation of offspring in a breeding program, designated F1, F2, etc. Financing: function of a health system concerned with the mobilization, accumulation and allocation of money to cover the health needs of the people, individually and collectively, in the health system. Raising revenue to pay for a good or service. Financial Resource Allocation: any process by which financial resources flow from a third-party payer (e.g., government, insurer, etc.) through the health care organization to the individual clinical provider. Fingerprinting: in genetics, the identification of multiple specific alleles on a person’s DNA to produce a unique identifier for that person. See also — forensics. Finished DNA Sequence: high-quality, low error, gap-free DNA sequence of the human genome. Achieving this ultimate 2003 HGP goal requires additional sequencing to close gaps, reduce ambiguities, and allow for only a single error every 10,000 bases, the agreed-upon standard for HGP finished sequence. See also — sequencing, draft sequence. Fistula: abnormal passage or connection between a hollow body cavity or organ and the surface of the body. Fixed Budget: a budget that is not adjusted for changes in the volume of service. Flatulence: release of gas through the anus. Flexible Budget: a budget that is adjusted for changes in the volume of service. Flow Cytometry: analysis of biological material by detection of the light-absorbing or fluorescing properties of cells or sub-cellular fractions (i.e., chromosomes) passing in a narrow stream through a laser beam. An absorbance or fluorescence profile of the sample is produced. Automated sorting devices, used to fractionate samples, sort successive droplets of the analyzed stream into different fractions depending on the fluorescence emitted by each droplet. Flow Karyotyping: use of flow cytometry to analyze and separate chromosomes according to their DNA content. α-Fetoprotein: synthesized in the fetus by perivascular hepatic parenchymal cells. It is found in a high percentage of patients with hepatomas and endodermal sinus tumor of the ovary or testes. It is a serum protein present in concentrations up to 400 mg/dl in early fetal life, falling to <3 mg/dl in adults. Increased levels may be detected in the serum of adults with hepatoma (80% positive) and endodermal sinus tumor (60-80% positive) and may be used to observe progression of the disease. Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH): a procedure for detecting specific nucleic acid sequences in morphologically preserved chromosomes, cells, and tissue sections using fluorescent labeled oligonucleotide probes. A physical mapping approach that uses fluorescein tags to detect hybridization of probes with metaphase chromosomes and with the less-condensed somatic interphase chromatin. Focus Group Discussion: sometimes called a group interview, focus group discussions are small (usually 5-15 people) interactive interviews led by an impartial facilitator, usually with a focused agenda. Fora: plural of forum; meetings, conferences, etc. Forensics: the use of DNA for identification. Some examples of DNA use are to establish paternity in child support cases; establish the presence of a suspect at a crime scene, and identify accident victims. Forensic Examination: examination to look for evidence that can later be used in legal proceedings; should be done by specially trained professional. Formulary: a list of approved drugs for reimbursement, with all non-approved drugs paid at a lesser rate or not at all. Forssman Antigen: an interspecies-specific antigen present in erythrocytes of many species, including some micro-organisms, that is capable of inducing the formation of lysin for sheep erythrocytes in animals devoid of such antigen. Fracture-pan: specially-designed bedpan for individuals who are unfit to lift their hips to position themselves on the bedpan. A handle allows the caregiver to remove the pan gently, without turning or lifting the user. Frame-shift: a mutation caused by deletions or insertions that are not a multiple of three base pairs. Results in a change in the reading frame in which triplet codons are translated into protein. Fraternal Twin: siblings born at the same time as the result of fertilization of two ova by two sperm. They share the same genetic relationship to each other as any other siblings. See also — identical twin. Frequency Distribution: a statistical term that denotes number of occurrences for a particular variable. Freund Adjuvant: Complete: Freund emulsion of mineral oil, plant waxes, and killed tubercle bacilli used to combine with antigen to stimulate antibody production. Incomplete: Freund mixture without tubercle bacilli. Full Gene Sequence: the complete order of bases in a gene. This order determines which protein a gene will produce. Function: the special kind of activity proper to something, the mode of action by which it fulfills its purpose. Also in general application, esp. as contrasted with structure. Functional Genomics: the study of genes, their resulting proteins, and the role played by the proteins the body’s biochemical processes. Funding: providing health care organizations with the financial resources required to carry out a general range of health-related activities. Fundholding: a system of payment for medical care which has the following characteristics: financial resources for health care are allocated on a per capita basis; financial resources are held in a fund; and the general practitioner is usually the decision-maker for allocating the fundsRead More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Gamete: mature male or female reproductive cell (sperm or ovum) with a haploid set of chromosomes (23 for humans). Mature reproductive cells, usually haploid in chromosome number (e.g., sperm or ovum). Gamma Rays: electromagnetic irradiation (originating inside the nucleus) emitted by excited nuclei. The gamma rays from an isotope will have one or several sharply defined energies. Gas: material that results from swallowed air or that is created when bacteria in the colon break down waste material. Gas that is released from the rectum is called flatulence. Gasping: occasional breaths with long pauses in between, not sufficient breathing. Gatekeeper: a primary care physician/general practitioner (or another provider) who is responsible for overseeing and coordinating all the medical needs of a patient. The gatekeeper must authorize any referral of the patient to a specialist or hospital. GC-rich Area: many DNA sequences carry long stretches of repeated G and C which often indicate a gene-rich region. Gel Electrophoresis: a molecular biology laboratory technique in which DNA, RNA, or proteins are separated according to molecular weight, charge, and special characteristics in an electric field applied to a gel. For example, because DNA is negatively charged, it migrates toward the positively charged electrode. See — electrophoresis. Gender: refers to the economic, social and cultural attributes and opportunities associated with being male or female in a particular point in time. Gender Equality: means equal treatment of women and men in laws and policies, and equal access to resources and services within families, communities and society at large. Gender Equity: means fairness and justice in the distribution of benefits and responsibilities between women and men. It often requires women-specific programs and policies to end existing inequalities. Gender Discrimination: refers to any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of socially constructed gender roles and norms which prevents a person from enjoying full human rights. Gene: a unit of heredity responsible for the inheritance of a specific trait that occupies a fixed chromosomal site and corresponds to a sequence of nucleotides along a DNA molecule. The fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity. A gene is an ordered sequence of nucleotides located in a particular position on a particular chromosome that encodes a specific functional product (i.e., a protein or RNA molecule). See also — gene expression. Gene Amplification: repeated copying of a piece of DNA; a characteristic of tumor cells. See also — gene, oncogene. Gene Chip Technology: development of cDNA microarrays from a large number of genes. Used to monitor and measure changes in gene expression for each gene represented on the chip. Gene Deletion: the deletion of part or all of a gene through removal of DNA sequences by any of several mechanisms. Gene Expression: the process by which a gene’s coded information is converted into the structures present and operating in the cell. Expressed genes include those that are transcribed into mRNA and then translated into protein and those that are transcribed into RNA but not translated into protein (e.g., transfer and ribosomal RNAs). Gene Family: group of closely related genes that make similar products. Gene Library: see — genomic library. Gene Mapping: determination of the relative positions of genes on a DNA molecule (chromosome or plasmid) and of the distance, in linkage units or physical units, between them. Gene Pool: all the variations of genes in a species. See also — allele, gene, polymorphism. Gene Prediction: predictions of possible genes made by a computer program based on how well a stretch of DNA sequence matches known gene sequences Gene Product: the biochemical material, either RNA or protein, resulting from expression of a gene. The amount of gene product is used to measure how active a gene is; abnormal amounts can be correlated with disease-causing alleles. Gene Rearrangement: the process by which part or all of a gene is moved from its normal location in the genome to another site within the genome. Gene Testing: see — genetic testing, genetic screening. Gene Therapy: an experimental procedure aimed at replacing, manipulating, or supplementing nonfunctional or misfunctioning genes with healthy genes. See also — gene, inherit, somatic cell gene therapy, germ line gene therapy. Gene Transfer: incorporation of new DNA into an organism’s cells, usually by a vector such as a modified virus. Used in gene therapy. See also — mutation, gene therapy, vector. General Estimated Mortality Rate, Adjusted by Age: the estimated total number of deaths in a population of a given sex, divided by the total number of that population after removing the effect of differences in the age distribution, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. General (Medical) Practitioner (GP): a general doctor, or family doctor, who is the first point of contact with the health services for all non-emergency cases. Generic Drugs: drugs which are identical in chemical composition to a brand name pharmaceutical preparation, but produced by competitors after the firm’s patent expire. Genetic Code: the sequence of nucleotides, coded in triplets (codons) along the mRNA, that determines the sequence of amino acids in protein synthesis. A gene’s DNA sequence can be used to predict the mRNA sequence, and the genetic code can in turn be used to predict the amino acid sequence. Genetic Counseling: provides patients and their families with education and information about genetic-related conditions and helps them make informed decisions. Genetic Discrimination: prejudice against those who have or are likely to develop an inherited disorder. Genetic Engineering: altering the genetic material of cells or organisms to enable them to make new substances or perform new functions. Genetic engineering technology: see — recombinant DNA technology. Genetic Illness: sickness, physical disability, or other disorder resulting from the inheritance of one or more deleterious alleles. Genetic Informatics: see — bioinformatics. Genetic Map: see — linkage map. Genetic Marker: a gene or other identifiable portion of DNA whose inheritance can be followed. See also — chromosome, DNA, gene, inherit. Genetic Material: see — genome. Genetic Mosaic: an organism in which different cells contain different genetic sequence. This can be the result of a mutation during development or fusion of embryos at an early developmental stage. Genetic Polymorphism: difference in DNA sequence among individuals, groups, or populations (e.g., genes for blue eyes versus brown eyes). Genetic Predisposition: susceptibility to a genetic disease. May or may not result in actual development of the disease. Genetic Screening: testing a group of people to identify individuals at high risk of having or passing on a specific genetic disorder. Genetic Testing: analyzing an individual’s genetic material to determine predisposition to a particular health condition or to confirm a diagnosis of genetic disease. Genetics: the study of inheritance patterns of specific traits. Genome: the entire complement of genetic material in a chromosome set. All the genetic material in the chromosomes of a particular organism; its size is generally given as its total number of base pairs. Genome Project: research and technology-development effort aimed at mapping and sequencing the genome of human beings and certain model organisms. See also — Human Genome Initiative. Genomic Imprinting: the existence of parent-of-origin differences in the expression of certain genes. Genomic Library: a collection of clones made from a set of randomly generated overlapping DNA fragments that represent the entire genome of an organism. See also — library, arrayed library. Genomic Sequence: see — DNA. Genomics: the study of genes and their function. Genotype: the genetic constitution of an organism, as distinguished from its physical appearance (its phenotype). Germ Cell: sperm and egg cells and their precursors. Germ cells are haploid and have only one set of chromosomes (23 in all), while all other cells have two copies (46 in all). Germ Line: the continuation of a set of genetic information from one generation to the next. See also — inherit. Germ Line Gene Therapy: an experimental process of inserting genes into germ cells or fertilized eggs to cause a genetic change that can be passed on to offspring. May be used to alleviate effects associated with a genetic disease. See also — genomics, somatic cell gene therapy. Germ Line Genetic Mutation: see — mutation. Germline Mosaicism: mosaicism that is confined to the gonad. Gerontopsychiatric: mental health care for older people. Global Budget: an aggregate cash sum, fixed in advance, intended to cover the total cost of a service, usually for one year ahead. Global Health: global health refers to the transnational impacts of globalization upon health determinants and health problems which are the beyond the control of individual nations. Goal: a general objective towards which to strive. Unlike objectives and targets, goals are not constrained by time or existing resources, nor are they necessarily attainable but are rather an ultimate desired state towards which actions and resources are directed. Good: term meaning tangible economic products that contribute to the satisfaction of demand. Governance: the exercise of political, economic and administrative authority in the management of a country’s affairs at all levels. It is a neutral concept comprising the complex mechanisms, processes, relationships and institutions through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their rights and obligations and mediate their differences. (UNDP) GP: general practitioner. Gray (Gy): the special name for the unit of absorbed dose and specific energy impacted; 1 Gy = 1 joule / kg = 100 rads. Gross Domestic Product (GDP), per capita, international $ (PPP-adjusted): the average per capita market value of the sum of gross values added of all resident institutional units engaged in production, for a given national economy, at a given period in time, usually a year, expressed in international dollars using purchasing power parity rates. The gross domestic product (GDP) at market prices is the sum of gross value added by all resident producers in the economy plus any taxes and minus any subsidies that are not included in the valuation of output. GDP measures the total output of goods and services for final use occurring within the domestic territory of a given country, regardless of the allocation to domestic and foreign claims; it provides an aggregate measure of production. The residency of an institutional unit is defined on the basis of economic interest in the territory for more than a year. An international dollar is defined as the currency unit that has the same purchasing power over GNP as the US dollar in the United States. Technical Note: GDP figures are those estimated by the World Bank from the corresponding ones in the United Nations’ Systems of National Accounts, expressed in domestic currency. GDP is calculated without making deductions for depreciation of fabricated assets or for depletion and degradation of natural resources. Purchasing power parity conversion factors are estimated by the World Bank based on data collected by the International Comparison Program (ICP), which is coordinated by the United Nations regional economic commissions and other international organizations. Per capita figures are based on the World Bank’s population estimates and projections. Gross Primary Enrollment Ratio: total number of pupils or of a given sex enrolled in primary education, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the corresponding population of the age group, which officially corresponds to primary schooling, at a specific period of time, usually a year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. According to the 1997 International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED-97), adopted by UNESCO, primary education is defined as the level of education which the main function is to provide the basic elements of education at such establishments as elementary schools, and primary schools. Technical Note: Gross enrollment ratios are based on the enrollment estimates made by UNESCO from national enrollment figures and population mid-year estimates from the corresponding United Nations fertility medium-variant quinquennial population projections. All ratios are expressed as percentages and may exceed 100 because of early entry, repetition, and, for countries with almost universal education at a given level, whenever the actual age distribution of pupils extends beyond the official school ages. Gross National Income (GNI), per capita, current US$ (Atlas Method): the Gross National Income, GNI, formerly referred to as gross national product (GNP), measures the total domestic and foreign value added claimed by residents, at a given period in time, usually a year, expressed in current US dollars using the World Bank Atlas method. GNI comprises GDP plus net receipts of primary income (compensation of employees and property income) from nonresident sources. Technical Note: GNI figures are those estimated by the World Bank from the corresponding ones in the United Nations’ Systems of National Accounts, expressed in domestic currency. The World Bank Atlas method of conversion is used to smooth fluctuations in prices and exchange rates in the cross-country comparison of national incomes. The conversion factor averages the exchange rate for a given year and the two preceding years, adjusted for the difference between the rate of inflation in the country and that in Japan, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Euro Zone. Gross National Income (GNI), per capita, international $ (PPP-adjusted): the Gross National Income, GNI, formerly referred to as gross national product (GNP) measures the total domestic and foreign value added claimed by residents at a given period in time, usually a year, expressed in international dollars using purchasing power parity rates. GNI comprises GDP plus net receipts of primary income (compensation of employees and property income) from nonresident sources. GNI provides an aggregate measure of income. An international dollar is defined as the currency unit that has the same purchasing power over GNI as the US dollar in the United States. Technical Note: GNI figures are those estimated by the World Bank from the corresponding ones in the United Nations’ systems of National Accounts, expressed in domestic currency. Purchasing power parity conversion factors are estimated by the World Bank based on data collected by the International Comparison Program (ICP), which is coordinated by the United Nations regional economic commissions and other international organizations. Per capita figures are based on the World Bank’s population estimates and projections. Group Interview: sometimes called a focus group discussion, group interviews are small (usually 5-15 people) interactive discussions led by an impartial facilitator, usually with a focused agenda. Growth Factor: protein that acts on cells to promote cell growth. Growth Factor Receptors: proteins that interact with growth factors and transmit the growth signal to the cell. Guanine (G): a nitrogenous base, one member of the base pair GC (guanine and cytosine) in DNA. See also — base pair, nucleotide. Guidelines: sets of steps which can be taken in performing a task or implementing a policy and the manner of so doing. Gyandromorph: organisms that have both male and female cells and therefore express both male and female characteristics.Read More