A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Habit Training: behavioral technique that calls for scheduled toileting at regular interval on a planned basis to prevent incontinence. Half-life: the time in which half the atoms of a radioactive species disintegrate. Haploid: the chromosome number of a normal gamete (sperm or ovum). In humans, the haploid number is 23, representing one member of each chromosome pair. A single set of chromosomes (half the full set of genetic material) present in the egg and sperm cells of animals and in the egg and pollen cells of plants. Human beings have 23 chromosomes in their reproductive cells. See also — diploid. Haplotype: a way of denoting the collective genotype of a number of closely linked loci on a chromosome. Hapten: a substance that combines specifically with antibody but does not initiate the formation of antibody unless attached to a high-molecular-weight carrier. Health: a state of complete physical, social and mental well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Health is a resource for everyday life, not the object of living. It is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources as well as physical capabilities. Health Benefit: in health economics, a health benefit is one which is recognized as providing a gain in terms of reduced costs or increased health. Health Care: any type of services provided by professionals or paraprofessionals with an impact on health status. Health Care Delivery: one of the functions of the health system, which deals with the medical and therapeutic measures, intended to preserve or improve the health condition of a patient. Health Care Institution: an institution where delivery care is provided by health workers with midwifery skills (health centre, maternity unit, hospital). Health Center: a facility that provides (ambulatory) medical and sanitary services to a specific group in a population. Health Care Providers: individuals who are trained to provide various health services. Health Economics: The study of how scarce resources are allocated among alternative uses for the care of sickness and the promotion, maintenance and improvement of health, including the study of how health care and health-related services, their costs and benefits, and health itself are distributed among individuals and groups in society. Health Education: the planned and managed process of investing in education to achieve improvement in health of a population. Health Expectancy: a population based measure of the proportion of expected life span estimated to be healthful and fulfilling, or free of illness, disease and disability according to social norms and perceptions and professional standards. Health For All Policy: the attainment by all people of the world of a level of health that will permit them to lead a socially and economically productive life. Health Gain: an increase in the measured health of an individual or population, including length and quality of life. Improvement in health status. Health Indicator: an indicator applicable to a health or health-related situation. A health indicator is a characteristic of an individual, population, or environment which is subject to measurement (directly or indirectly) and can be used to describe one or more aspects of the health of an individual or population (quality, quantity and time). Health Inequality and Inequity: health inequalities can be defined as differences in health status or in the distribution of health determinants between different population groups. For example, differences in mobility between elderly people and younger populations or differences in mortality rates between people from different social classes. It is important to distinguish between inequality in health and inequity. Some health inequalities are attributable to biological variations or free choice and others are attributable to the external environment and conditions mainly outside the control of the individuals concerned. In the first case it may be impossible or ethically or ideologically unacceptable to change the health determinants and so the health inequalities are unavoidable. In the second, the uneven distribution may be unnecessary and avoidable as well as unjust and unfair, so that the resulting health inequalities also lead to inequity in health. Health Insurance: a mechanism by which money is raised to pay for health services by financial contributions to a fund; the fund then purchases health services from providers for the benefit of those for whom contributions are made or who are otherwise covered by the scheme. Health Maintenance Organization (HMO): US health care sector term, an organization that contracts to provide comprehensive medical services (not patient reimbursement) for a specified fee each month. Health Outcome: changes in health status (mortality and morbidity) which result from the provision of health (or other) services. Health Plan: a broad term for all kinds of public or private schemes of health care coverage, including, for example, national health systems, sickness fund schemes, and private health insurance schemes. Health Policy: a formal statement or procedure within institutions (notably government) which defines priorities and the parameters for action in response to health needs, available resources and other political pressures. Health Promotion: the planned and managed process of encouraging and assisting improvement in the health of a population as distinct from the provision of health care services. Health Resources: the means available for the operation of health systems, including human resources, facilities, equipment and supplies, financial funds and knowledge. Health Sector: part of the economy dealing with health-related issues in society. Health Services: any service which can contribute to improved health or the diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation of sick people and not necessarily limited to medical or health-care services. Health Services Research: a field on inquiry that examines the impact of the organization, financing and management of health care services on the delivery, quality, cost, access to and outcomes of such services. Health Status: term for the state of health of an individual, group or population measured against defined standards/indicators. Health System: the people, institutions and resources, arranged together in accordance with established policies, to improve the health of the population they serve, while responding to people’s legitimate expectations and protecting them against the cost of ill-health through a variety of activities whose primary intent is to improve health. Set of elements and their relations in a complex whole, designed to serve the health needs of the population. Health systems fulfill three main functions: health care delivery, fair treatment to all, and meeting non health expectations of the population. These functions are performed in the pursuit of three goals: health, responsiveness and fair financing. Health System Goal: a general objective towards which the health system should strive. The World Health Report 2000 identifies three intrinsic goals of any health system: health, which is also the defining goal responsiveness fair financing. Health Target: health targets state, for a given population, the amount of change (using a health indicator) which could be reasonably expected within a defined period of time. Health Technology: the application of scientific knowledge to solving health problems. Health Technology Assessment: comprehensive evaluation and assessment of existing and emerging medical technologies including pharmaceuticals, procedures, services, devices and equipment in regard to their medical, economic, social and ethical effects. Health Workforce: medical and paramedical services delivered to patients at home. Healthy Public Policy: healthy public policy is a key component of the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion (1986). The concept includes policies designed specifically to promote health (for example banning cigarette advertising) and policies not dealing directly with health but acknowledged to have a health impact (for example transport, education, economics) (Lock, 2000). Helper Factor: sensitized T lymphocyte subpopulations release a helper factor that enables immunocompetent B cells to respond to antigens that they otherwise are unable to recognize. The stimulated B lymphocytes differentiate into plasma cells that produce antibody. The helper factor can also stimulate the B lymphocyte to produce a variant of the B cell, termed a killer cell (K cell) that is able to attack tumor cells only after the tumor cells have been exposed to specific antibody. Complement is not required for this action. See also killer cell. Hemagglutinin: an antibody that reacts with a surface antigen determinant on red cells to cause agglutination of those red cells. Hematuria: blood in urine, which may only be detected using a microscope. Hemizygous: having only one copy of a particular gene. For example, in humans, males are hemizygous for genes found on the Y chromosome. Hemolysin (Amboceptor): an anti-red cell antibody that can specifically activate complement (C’) to cause lysis of red cells. HER–2: see c-erb-b2 proto-oncogene. Hereditary Cancer: cancer that occurs due to the inheritance of an altered gene within a family. See also — sporadic cancer. Hereditary Unstable DNA (Triplet Repeat Expansion): gene containing a region of triplet codon repeats such as (CGC)n. The number of triplet repeats can increase during meiosis. If the expansion of repeats reaches a critical number, the gene becomes methylated and is turned off, resulting in phenotypic abnormalities. Hetero- : other or different; often used to mean “of a different species”. Heterochromatin: chromatin that remains condensed throughout interphase. It contains DNA that is genetically inactive and replicates late in the S phase of the cell cycle. There are two types of heterochromatin: constitutive and facultative. Heterogeneous: a term that refers to the amount or degree of difference in a group (e.g., of research subjects). Heteronuclear RNA: a form of RNA, a pre-mRNA, that exists before splicing and consists of both introns and exons. Heterophil: pertains to antigenic specificity shared between species. Heterophil Antigens: antigens common to more than one species. Heterozygosity: the presence of different alleles at one or more loci on homologous chromosomes. The presence in a chromosome of dissimilar genes. Two different forms of the same gene in a cell. An oncogene is generally heterozygous. For example, one allele may be mutated while the other copy remains normal. In addition, different forms of a gene may be normal variants. Variations in the exact base sequence within DNA are common in the genome among humans. These are called polymorphisms and are often responsible for the heterozygous state. Heterozygote: see — heterozygosity. Highest 20%/Lowest 20% income ratio: the quotient of the richest total income quintile divided by the poorest total income quintile in a given population, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, at a specific period in time, usually a year. Technical Note: Data are estimates based the percentage share of income or consumption. Highly Conserved Sequence: DNA sequence that is very similar across several different types of organisms. see also — gene, mutation. High-throughput Sequencing: a fast method of determining the order of bases in DNA. See also — sequencing. Histocompatibility Antigens (Transplantation or HLA Antigens): antigens coded for by histocompatibility genes that determine the specific compatibility of grafted tissues and organs. HIV: human immunodeficiency virus; the virus that causes AIDS. HIV Voluntary Counseling and Testing (VCT): counseling prior to HIV test, testing itself, and post-test counseling conducted when results of the test are given to the patient. HLA Antigens (Human Leukocyte Antigens): a genetic locus containing two closely linked groups of several alleles (a sublocus). They are present on the cell membranes of all nucleated cells and play a major role in determining graft take and rejection. Homeobox: a short stretch of nucleotides whose base sequence is virtually identical in all the genes that contain it. Homeoboxes have been found in many organisms from fruit flies to human beings. In the fruit fly, a homeobox appears to determine when particular groups of genes are expressed during development. Homogeneous: a term that refers to the amount or degree of similarity in a group (e.g., of research subjects). Homolog: a member of a chromosome pair in diploid organisms or a gene that has the same origin and functions in two or more species. Homologous: see allogeneic. Homologous Chromosome: chromosome containing the same linear gene sequences as another, each derived from one parent. Homologous Disease: see allogeneic disease. Homologous Recombination: swapping of DNA fragments between paired chromosomes. Homology: similarity in DNA or protein sequences between individuals of the same species or among different species. Homozygote: an organism that has two identical alleles of a gene. See also — heterozygote. Homozygous: see — homozygote. HoNOS: Health of the Nation Outcome Scales. Horizontal Transmission of Viruses: transmission of viruses between individual hosts of the same generation. See also vertical transmission of viruses. Hospital: residential establishment equipped with inpatient facilities for 24-hour medical and nursing care, diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation of the sick and injured, usually for both medical and surgical conditions, and staffed with at least one physician. The hospital may also provide outpatient services. Hospital Bed: a regularly maintained and staffed bed for the accommodation and full-time care of a succession of inpatients, situated in wards or areas of the hospital where continuous medical care is provided. It is a measure of hospital capacity. Hospital Beds Ratio: the number of hospital beds available per every 1,000 inhabitants in a population, at a given year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Hospital Discharges Ratio: the number of hospital discharges per every 1,000 inhabitants in a population, at a given year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. It represents an estimate of the degree of utilization of in-patient health care services. Hospital discharge is defined as the formal release of a hospitalized individual due to conclusion of the hospitalization stay, either by death, return home, or transfer to another institution. A hospital is defined as any medical facility with an organized medical and professional staff and beds available for continuous hospitalization of patients formally admitted to it for medical observation, care, diagnosis, or surgical and non-surgical treatment. Host: the organism whose body serves to sustain a graft; interchangeable with the recipient. Human Artificial Chromosome (HAC): a vector used to hold large DNA fragments. See also — chromosome, DNA. Human Capital: human skills and capabilities generated by investments in education and health. Human Gene Therapy: See — gene therapy. Human Genome Initiative: collective name for several projects begun in 1986 by DOE to create an ordered set of DNA segments from known chromosomal locations, develop new computational methods for analyzing genetic map and DNA sequence data, and develop new techniques and instruments for detecting and analyzing DNA. This DOE initiative is now known as the Human Genome Program. The joint national effort, led by DOE and NIH, is known as the Human Genome Project. Human Genome Project (HGP): formerly titled Human Genome Initiative. See also — Human Genome Initiative. Human Resources: people who work in the various professions of health care. Humoral Antibodies: antibodies present in body fluids. Humoral Immunity: pertains to the body fluids in contrast to cellular elements. It is initiated by the thymus-independent B cells. These B lymphocytes proliferate and differentiate into plasma cells that secrete immunoglobulins (IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE). Hybrid: the offspring of genetically different parents. See also — heterozygote. Hybridization (Dot Blot): a semiquantitative technique for evaluating the relative abundance of nucleic acid sequences in a mixture or the extent of similarity between homologous sequences. The process of joining two complementary strands of DNA or one each of DNA and RNA to form a double-stranded molecule. Hybridoma: a hybrid cell that results from the fusion of an antibody-creating cell with a malignant cell; the progeny secrete antibody without stimulation and proliferate continuously in vivo and in vitro. Hydronephrosis: dilation of the renal pelvis and calices and sometimes the collecting ducts. Hydronephrosis is secondary to obstruction of urine flow by calculi, tumors, neurologic disorders, or any various congenital anomalies. Hydrophilic-Coated Catheter: one-time use tube devices that are coated with a substance that absorbs water and binds it to the device’s surface. Hypoxemia: decreased oxygen content in blood. Hypoxia: decreased level of oxygen in tissue. Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy: also called post-asphyxial encephalopathy, hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy is a subtype of neonatal encephalopathy for which the etiology is considered to be limitation of oxygen and blood flow near the time of birth. Historically, it has been assumed that most cases of neonatal encephalopathy were hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, but epidemiologic studies have established that assumption is incorrect.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     X Chromosome: one of the two sex chromosomes, X and Y. See also Y chromosome, sex chromosome. Xenogeneic (Heterologous): pertaining to individuals of different species. Xenograft (Heterograft): tissue or organs from an individual of one species transplanted into or grafted onto an organism of another species, genus, or family. A common example is the use of pig heart valves in humans. A graft derived from an animal of a species different from the one receiving the graft. X-inactivation: a process by which one of the X chromosomes in each somatic cell of females is rendered inactive. This results in a balance in gene expression between in X chromosomal and autosomal genes, which is necessary because males have only one X chromosome. X-linked: an allele for a trait or disorder that is located on the X chromosome. May be either dominant or recessive. X-rays: rays emitted by a particular generator will emit a spectrum of energies.      Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Identical Twin: twins produced by the division of a single zygote; both have identical genotypes. See also — fraternal twin. Idiotypes: The unique and characteristic parts of an antibody’s variable region, which can themselves, serve as antigens. Immune: the state of being secure against harmful agents (e.g., bacteria, virus, or other foreign proteins) or influences. Immune Clearance: clearance of antigen from the circulation after complexing with antibodies. Immunotherapy: using the immune system to treat disease, for example, in the development of vaccines. May also refer to the therapy of diseases caused by the immune system. See also — cancer. Immune Response: a specific response that results in immunity. The total response includes an afferent phase during which responsive cells are “primed” by antigen, a central response during which antibodies or sensitized lymphoid cells are formed, and an efferent or effector response during which immunity is effected by antibodies or immune cells. Immunity: the state of being able to resist or overcome harmful agents or influences. Active: Immunity acquired as the result of experience with an organism or other foreign substance. Passive: Immunity resulting from acquisition of antibody or sensitized lymphoid cells. Immunize: the act or process of rendering an individual resistant or immune to a harmful agent. Immunocompetent Cell (Antigen-sensitive Cell): any cell that can be stimulated by antigen to form antibodies or give rise to sensitized lymphoid cells, including inducible cells, primed cells, and memory cells. Immunoconjugate: a monoclonal antibody linked to a chemotherapy agent, radioisotope, or natural toxin to increase ability to kill target cells. Immunogen: an antigen that incites specific immunity. Immunoglobulins: classes of globulins to which all antibodies belong. Immunologic Enhancement: enhanced survival of incompatible tissue grafts (tumor or normal tissue) caused by specific humoral or other blocking factors. Immunologic Paralysis: absence of normal specific immunologic response to an antigen, resulting from previous contact with the same antigen, administered in a quantity greatly exceeding that required to elicit an immunologic response. The normal capacity to respond to other unrelated antigens is retained. Immunologic Surveillance: effective immunologic surveillance relies on the presence of tumor-specific antigenic determinants on the surfaces of neoplastic cells, which enable these altered cells to be recognized as non-self and to be destroyed by immunologic reactions. Immunologic Tolerance: (antigenic paralysis, immunologic suppression, immunologic unresponsiveness, antigen tolerance) failure of the antibody response to a potential antigen after exposure to that antigen. Tolerance commonly results from prior exposure to antigens. Immunoreaction: reaction between antigen and its antibody. Immunotoxin: a monoclonal antibody linked to a natural toxin. Impact: the total, direct and indirect, effects of a program, service or institution on a health status and overall health and socio-economic development. Impact Assessment: impact assessment is about judging the effect that a policy or activity will have on people or places. It has been defined as the “prediction or estimation of the consequences of a current or proposed action” (Vanclay and Bronstein, 1995) Impartial: not favoring a particular belief or point of view; unbiased. Implantation: attachment of the balstocyst to the endometrial lining of the uterus and subsequent embedding in the endometrium. Implantation begins at about 5-7 days after fertilization and may be complete as early as 8-9 days after fertilization. Implementation: the carrying out of a project or program. Imprinting: the imposition of a stable behavior pattern in a young animal by exposure, during a particular period in its development, to one of a restricted set of stimuli. Imprinting (Genetics): a phenomenon in which the disease phenotype depends on which parent passed on the disease gene. For instance, both Prader-Willi and Angelman syndromes are inherited when the same part of chromosome 15 is missing. When the father’s complement of 15 is missing, the child has Prader-Willi, but when the mother’s complement of 15 is missing, the child has Angelman syndrome. Incentives: systems which reward and therefore tend to encourage certain types of activity. Incidence: occurrence, or the rate of occurrence. The number of instances of illness commencing or of persons falling ill, during a given period in a specified population. More generally, the number of new events, e.g., new cases of a disease in a defined population, within a specified period of time. The term incidence is sometimes used to denote INCIDENCE RATE. Incidence Rate: measures the new cases of a specific disease that develop during a defined period of time and the approximation of the risk for developing the disease. The incidence rate focuses on events. Incidence measures the probability of developing a disease. Incidence of Bacilloscopically Positive (BK+) Tuberculosis: the number of new cases of bacilloscopically confirmed tuberculosis, in a specific year, expressed per 100.000 population, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Incidence of Oral Cavity Cancer: incidence of oral cavity cancer (ICD-10: C00-C08). Age-standardized rate (ASR) per 100,000 world standard population. Incidence Rate: the number of new cases of a disease in a defined population over a specified period of time. Incontinence: accidental or involuntary loss of urine or feces (stool). A person may have urinary or fecal incontinence or both (sometimes called double incontinence). Independent Variable: the independent variable is used to explain the dependent variable. Index Admission: the first admission for the subject in the study period. Index Patient: the original patient diagnosed for a particular infection. Indicator: a variable with characteristics of quality, quantity and time used to measure, directly or indirectly, changes in a situation and to appreciate the progress made in addressing it. It also provides a basis for developing adequate plans for improvement. Variable susceptible of direct measurement that is assumed to be associated with a state that cannot be measured directly. Indicators are sometimes standardized by national or international authorities. Variable that helps to measure changes in a health situation directly or indirectly and to assess the extent to which the objectives and targets of a program are being attained. Markers for assessing and/or understanding a particular (social, economic, political, medical, etc.) phenomenon. Indirect Methods: methods or questions that obscure the data collector’s true intentions. Induced Abortion: intentional termination of pregnancy prior to fetus reaching the state of viability by mechanical (surgical) means or by drugs. Provoked termination of pregnancy. Indwelling Catheters: tube device inserted into the bladder to drain the urine continuously. Sometimes called a Foley catheter. Indwelling Urethral Catheterization: process of inserting a tube device into the bladder through the urethra to drain urine continuously. Inequalities Audit / Equity Audit: a review of inequalities within an area or of the coverage of inequalities issues in a policy, program or project, usually with recommendations as to how they can be addressed. Inequality in Health: differences in health across individuals in the population. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): the quotient between the number of deaths in children under 1 year of age in a given year and the number of live births in that year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, expressed per 1,000 live births, as reported from the national health authority. The reported neonatal mortality rate is defined as the quotient between the number of children born alive that died before the age of 28 days in a given year and the number of live births in that year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, expressed per 1,000 live births, as reported from the national health authority. The reported post-neonatal mortality rate is defined as the quotient between the number of children that were alive after 27 days of age and died before the age of 1 year in a given year and the number of live births in that year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, expressed per 1,000 live births, as reported from the national health authority. The estimated infant mortality rate is the quotient between the number of deaths in children under 1 year of age in a given year and the number of live births in that year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, expressed per 1,000 live births, as estimated by the United Nations’ Population Division. Infertility: inability to conceive; usually assumed to exist if pregnancy is not achieved after 12 months of regular sexual intercourse, without the use of any form of birth control. Infestation: development of a pathogenic agent on the body, e.g., body lice. Inflation: Consumer Prices Index’s Annual Growth Rate: the annual average rate of change in the cost, to the average consumer, of acquiring a defined basket of goods and services that may be fixed or changed at specific intervals, for a given national economy, during a one year period. Technical Note: Consumer price index is usually derived explicitly as the weighted arithmetic mean of the current prices of goods and services from the fixed basket, obtained through recurring price surveys, based on their fixed value-based weights for the base period (Laspeyres formula), which are also obtained from household expenditure surveys. Consumer price index growth rates are those estimated by the World Bank from the corresponding data in the United Nations’s Systems of National Accounts using the least-squares method. Informants: persons with special knowledge or insights based on experience, training, or social position. Information Asymmetry: the difference in the amount of information available to the various parties to a transaction which does not place them on equal footing to strike a deal. Informative: a term used to describe the situation when the two homologous chromosomes from an individual can be distinguished from one another at a given locus; heterozygous is an alternative term. Informed Consent: the ethical practice of providing sufficient information for potential research subjects to make informed decisions about their participation in a research study; informed consent involves the presentation to the subjects of a statement of all the risks and benefits of participation. Inner Cell Mass: the centrally located cells within the balstocyst; these cells will develop into the embryo. Inpatient: a patient who is formally admitted (or “hospitalized”) to an institution for treatment and/or care and stays for a minimum of one night in the hospital or other institution providing inpatient care. Input: a quantified amount of a resource put in a process. Insertion: a mutation caused by the presence of an additional sequence of nucleotide pairs in DNA. The addition of a DNA sequence into the genome. In-Situ Hybridization: use of a DNA or RNA probe to detect the presence of the complementary DNA sequence in cloned bacterial or cultured eukaryotic cells. Institution: an organization or association, established for the promotion of some object, especially one of public or general utility. Instrumental Goal: a goal whose pursuit is really a means to another end. Integrated Impact Assessment: integrated impact assessment brings together components of environmental, health, social and other forms of impact assessment in an attempt to incorporate an exploration of all the different ways in which policies, programs or projects may affect the physical, social and economic environment. Integrated Model: compulsory or voluntary health insurance or third-party funding in which both the insurance and provision of health care is supplied by the same organization in a vertically integrated system. Integrated Pollution Prevention Control Regulations: in October 1996 the European Commission published a Directive on Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) which came into effect on 30 October 1999. As a result, European Union Member States were required to introduce a regulatory system to ensure that particular industries take action to ensure “an integrated approach to pollution control” in order to achieve “a high level of protection for the environment as a whole” when considering both routine and accidental releases. The definition of pollution in the Directive includes releases to air, land or water “which may be harmful to human health”. In the UK, Pollution Prevention and Control regulations were introduced in 2000 and they require that health authorities are consulted on IPPC. Three are around 7,000 sites affected across the country and the types of activity which are covered by the regulations include the energy, metals, oil, chemical and waste management industries, paper production, food production and some intensive livestock rearing (University of Birmingham, 2002). Integrated Services: availability of multiple health services—for instance, family planning and STI treatment—through a single facility or at a single visit. Integration: incorporation of other services into already existing services. Intellectual Property Rights (IPR): these are exclusive rights, often temporary, granted by the state for the exploitation of intellectual creations. Intellectual property rights fall into two categories: rights relating to industrial property (invention patents, industrial designs and models, trademarks and geographical indications) and those relating to literary and artistic property (copyright). The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) covers the main categories of intellectual property law. Interferon: a family of proteins released by cells in response to a virus infection. These substances represent non-specific immunity and appear to have non-specific tumoricidal characteristics. Interleukin–1: a macrophage-derived cytokine that is necessary for the initial step in activation of specific T cells and the process of in vivo production of effector T cells. Interleukin–2: a lymphokine with multiple in vitro and in vivo effects. It is an essential factor for the growth of T cells; it augments various T cell functions; it supports the preservation and augmentation of NK cell function; and it is critical for the generation of LAK cells. Interleukins: polypeptides secreted by lymphocytes, monocytes, or other accessory cells that function in the regulation of the hematopoietic or immune system; these molecules have an important role in cell-to-cell communication. Intermediate HIA Monitoring and Evaluation: an intermediate HIA may combine a workshop with key stakeholders followed by desk based work to build up a more detailed picture of the potential health impacts than those which would be identified during a rapid or “mini” HIA. It may involve a limited literature search, usually non-systematic, and is mostly reliant on routine, readily available data (Parry and Stevens, 2001). Intermittent Catheterization: the use of catheters inserted through the urethra into the bladder every 3-6 hours for bladder drainage in persons with urinary retention. Intermittent catheterization performed by the patient at home is called clean intermittent catheterization (CIC). Internal Validity: the index and comparison groups are selected and compared in such a manner that the observed differences between them on the dependent variables under study may, apart from sampling error, be attributed only to the hypothesized effect under investigation. Intersectoral Action: action in which the health sector and other relevant sectors of the economy collaborate, or interact to pursue health goals. International Law: This is the body of rules that are binding on states and other subjects of international law, in particular international organizations, in their relations with each other. Closely related to the concept of sovereignty of states, the norms of international law are binding because states consent that they should be. The expression of this consent appears from the actual practice of states in the case of customary international law and from ratifications in the case of treaties, to which the concept of pacta sunt servanda applies. This asserts that treaties are binding on the parties to them and must be executed in good faith. To the extent that the rules of international law influence the behavior of states in world politics, they are a “social reality”, thus constituting an institution of “international society”, or proof of the existence of an international community. Intervention: an activity or set of activities aimed at modifying a process, course of action or sequence of events, in order to change one or several of their characteristics such as performance or expected outcome. Interview Protocol: standard list of questions together with guidance on how to classify responses. Intervention Research: also called operations research; research that includes design, implementation, and assessment of a service-delivery or community intervention. Intrauterine Growth Restriction: estimated fetal weight less than the 10th percentile. The term intrauterine growth restriction includes normal fetuses at the lower end of the growth spectrum, as well as those specific clinical conditions in which the fetus fails to achieve its inherent growth potential as a consequence of either pathologic extrinsic influences (such as maternal smoking) or intrinsic genetic defects (such as aneuploidy). Distinctions between normal and pathologic growth often cannot be made reliably in clinical practice, especially before birth. Intravesical Pressure: pressure within the bladder. Intrinsic Goal: a goal that is valued in and of itself. Intrinsic Sphincter Deficiency (ISD): cause of stress urinary incontinence in which the urethral sphincter is unable to contract and generate sufficient resistance in the bladder, especially during stress maneuvers. ISD may be due to congenital sphincter weakness, such as myelomeningocele or epispadias, or it may be acquired subsequent to prostatectomy, trauma, radiation therapy, or sacral cord lesions. Introitus: external vaginal opening. Intron: a region of a gene, made up of non-coding DNA sequences that lies between exons. Portions of genomic DNA that are interspersed between exons and are transcribed along with the exons into Heteronuclear RNA. Inverse Square Law: the intensity of radiation from a point varies inversely as the square of the distance from the source. Thus, the dose rate at 2 cm from a source is one fourth that at 1 cm. At 3 cm, the dose rate is one-ninth that at 1 cm. Inversion: a mutation involving the removal of a DNA sequence, its rotation through 180 degrees, and its reinsertion in the same location. In- Vitro: studies performed outside a living organism such as in a laboratory. In- Vivo: studies carried out in living organisms. Independent Assortment: during meiosis each of the two copies of a gene is distributed to the germ cells independently of the distribution of other genes. See also — linkage. Informatics: see — bioinformatics. Informed Consent: an individual willingly agrees to participate in an activity after first being advised of the risks and benefits. See also — privacy. Inherit: in genetics, to receive genetic material from parents through biological processes. Inherited: see — inherit. Insertion: a chromosome abnormality in which a piece of DNA is incorporated into a gene and thereby disrupts the gene’s normal function. See also — chromosome, DNA, gene, mutation. Insertional Mutation: see — insertion. Intellectual Property Rights: patents, copyrights, and trademarks. See also — patent. Interference: one crossover event inhibits the chances of another crossover event. Also known as positive interference. Negative interference increases the chance of a second crossover. See also — crossing over. Interphase: the period in the cell cycle when DNA is replicated in the nucleus; followed by mitosis. Intron: DNA sequence that interrupts the protein-coding sequence of a gene; an intron is transcribed into RNA but is cut out of the message before it is translated into protein. See also — exon. Ionization: the removal of an electron from an atom, leaving a positively charged ion. Ionizing Radiation: radiation capable of causing ionization. Ischemia: it is impairment of blood flow to tissues either because of constriction or frank obstruction of a blood vessel. Iso- : identical. Isoantibody: the term used in blood grouping studies to designate an antibody formed by one individual that reacts with antigens of another individual of the same species. See also alloantibody. Isoantigen: see alloantigen. The isoantigen is commonly used in hematology. Isoenzyme: an enzyme performing the same function as another enzyme but having a different set of amino acids. The two enzymes may function at different speeds. Isogeneic: see syngeneic. Isograft: see syngraft. Isoimmune: see alloimmune. Isologous: see syngeneic. Isotope: nuclides having an equal number of protons but a different number of neutrons (excitable situation).Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Y Chromosome: one of the two sex chromosomes, X and Y. See also X chromosome, sex chromosome. Yeast Artificial Chromosome (YAC): constructed from yeast DNA, it is a vector used to clone large DNA fragments. See also — cloning vector, cosmid                Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Junk DNA: stretches of DNA that do not code for genes; most of the genome consists of so-called junk DNA which may have regulatory and other functions. Also called non-coding DNA. Justice: it is the principle of rendering what is due to others. It is most complex of the ethical principles to be considered because it deals not only with the physician’s obligation to render to a patient what is owed but also with the physician’s role in allocation of limited medical resources in the community. The principle of justice applies at many levels.                Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z Zinc-Finger Protein: a secondary feature of some proteins containing a zinc atom; a DNA-binding protein. Zygote: the single cell formed by the union of the male and female haploid gametes at syngamy.                  Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Karyotype: the chromosome constitution of an individual. A photomicrograph of an individual’s chromosomes arranged in a standard format showing the number, size, and shape of each chromosome type; used in low-resolution physical mapping to correlate gross chromosomal abnormalities with the characteristics of specific diseases. Kegel Exercises: exercise named after Dr. Arnold Kegel, who first prescribed a specific set of pelvic-floor exercises to women in the 1940s. (see Pelvic Muscle Exercises). keV: 1,000 eV. Key Informant: person chosen to answer a survey on the grounds of a better knowledge and understanding of the issues under consideration. Kidney: one of two paired urine-making organs that lie in the back behind the 13th rib. The principal function is to filter the blood to separate out waste products, which are combined with excess water to form urine. Killer Cell (K Cell): sensitized T lymphocytes produce a helper factor that acts on the immunocompetent lymphoid cell to produce a population of cells, probably variants of the B cell, termed killer cells (K cells), which are able to attack tumor cells that have been exposed to a specific sensitizing antibody. Unlike in the usual humoral antibody (immunoglobulin) response, complement is not needed. Killer T Cell: a T cell with a particular immune specificity and an endogenously produced receptor for antigen, capable of specifically killing its target cell after attachment to the target cell by this receptor. Also called cytotoxic T cell. Kilobase (kb): unit of length for DNA fragments equal to 1000 nucleotides. Knockout: deactivation of specific genes; used in laboratory organisms to study gene function. See also — gene, locus, model organisms.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Leprosy Prevalence: the number of existing cases (new and old) from leprosy at the end of a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Library: an unordered collection of clones (i.e., cloned DNA from a particular organism) whose relationship to each other can be established by physical mapping. See also — genomic library, arrayed library. Licensing: the establishment of legal restrictions defining which individuals or (institutions) have the rights to provide services or goods (usually based on meeting minimum requirements). Life Expectancy: the number of year of life that can be expected on average in a given population. Life Expectancy at Birth: the average number of years that a newborn could expect to live, if he or she were to pass through life exposed to the sex- and age-specific death rates prevailing at the time of his or her birth, for a specific year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Technical Note: Life expectancy at birth is derived from life tables and is based on sex- and age-specific death rates. Life expectancy at birth values from the United Nations correspond to mid-year estimates, consistent with the corresponding United Nations fertility medium-variant quinquennial population projections. Likert Response Scale: a series of responses ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”; “excellent” to “poor”; “very satisfied” to “very dissatisfied”, etc., often used to measure attitudes. Linear Energy Transfer (LET): the energy lost by the particle of photon per micron of path depth. High LET radiations are more effective against hypoxic cells. Linkage: the association of genes on the same chromosome. The proximity of two or more markers (e.g., genes, RFLP markers) on a chromosome; the closer the markers, the lower the probability that they will be separated during DNA repair or replication processes (binary fission in prokaryotes, mitosis or meiosis in eukaryotes), and hence the greater the probability that they will be inherited together. Linkage Disequilibrium: where alleles occur together more often than can be accounted for by chance. Indicates that the two alleles are physically close on the DNA strand. See also — Mendelian inheritance. Linkage Map: a map of the relative positions of genetic loci on a chromosome, determined on the basis of how often the loci are inherited together. Distance is measured in centimorgans (cM). Literacy Rate: the proportion of the adult population aged 15 years and over which is literate, expressed as a percentage of the corresponding population, total or for a given sex, in a given country, territory, or geographic area, at a specific point in time, usually mid-year. For statistical purposes, a person is literate who can with understanding both read and write a short simple statement on his/her everyday life. Technical Note: Literacy rate definition complies with the revised recommendation concerning the International Standardization of Educational Statistics, adopted by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Literacy rate data represent mid-year estimated values. Live Birth Weight: the complete expulsion or extraction from its mother of a product of conception, irrespective of the duration of the pregnancy, which, after such separation, breathes or shows any other evidence of life. Localize: determination of the original position (locus) of a gene or other marker on a chromosome. Lochia: postpartum discharge which is often blood-stained, but not foul-smelling. Locus (pl. loci): the position on a chromosome of a gene or other chromosome marker; also, the DNA at that position. The use of locus is sometimes restricted to mean expressed DNA regions. A general term to describe a defined chromosome region. See also — gene expression. Longitudinal Design: a trend study, involving repeated data collection of independently selected samples from the same population over time; or: a panel study with information gathered from the same cases at two or more different times, with the sets of data linked by case. Long-Range Restriction Mapping: restriction enzymes are proteins that cut DNA at precise locations. Restriction maps depict the chromosomal positions of restriction-enzyme cutting sites. These are used as biochemical “signposts,” or markers of specific areas along the chromosomes. The map will detail the positions where the DNA molecule is cut by particular restriction enzymes. Long-Term Care (LTC): long-term care encompasses a broad range of help with daily activities that chronically disabled individuals need for a prolonged period of time. Loss of Heterozygosity: losses of specific regions of DNA from one copy of a given chromosome that can be distinguished from the region retained on the other chromosome. Low Birth Weight: a birth weight of less than 2500 g. Low Birth Weight Prevalence: the number of newborn children weighing less than 2,500 grams, as weighted at the time of birth or within the first hours of life, before significant postnatal weight loss has occurred, expressed per 1,000 live births, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Lower Genital Tract Infection: includes vaginal and cervical infection. Lower Urinary Tract: consists of the bladder, prostate gland (in men), urethra, and urinary sphincters. LUTS: abbreviation for lower urinary tract symptoms — a group of symptoms including 1) incontinence, 2) weak stream, 3) hesitancy, 4) urgency of urination, 5) nocturia, 6) postvoid dribbling, and 7) intermittency, an interrupted urinary stream. Lymphocyte: a round cell with scanty cytoplasm and a diameter of 7-12 µm. the nucleus is round, sometimes indented, with chromatin arranged in coarse masses and without visible nucleoli. Lymphocytes may be actively mobile. Lymphoid Cell: any or all cells of the lymphocytic and plasmacytic series. Lymphokines: substances released by sensitized lymphocytes when they come into contact with the antigen to which they are sensitized; examples include transfer factor, lymphocyte-transforming activity, migration inhibition factor, and lymphotoxin.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Macrophage: large mononuclear phagocyte. This cell may be called a histiocyte in the tissues; it is called a monocyte in the blood. An antigen must come in contact with or pass through a macrophage before it can become a processed antigen with the ability to encounter the then sensitize a small lymphocyte. Macrophage-Activating Factor: sensitized T lymphocytes can release a non-specific macrophage-activating factor that creates a cytotoxic population of macrophages that appear to distinguish malignant from normal cells, killing only malignant ones. Macrorestriction Map: map depicting the order of and distance between sites at which restriction enzymes cleave chromosomes. Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC): a cluster of genes encoding cell surface molecules that are polymorphic within a species and that code for antigens, which leads to rapid graft rejection between members of a single species that differ at these loci. Several classes of protein, such as MHC class I and class II proteins, are encoded in this region. Malformation: also congenital anomaly or birth defect. Any defect present at birth, probably of developmental origin. Managed Care: the use of a “manager” to control utilization of medical services and control costs. Managed Competition: government regulation of a health care market which uses competition as the means to achieve efficiency objectives within a framework of government intervention designed to achieve other policy objectives, such as equity. Management: the measures taken to plan, organize, operate and evaluate all the many elements of a system and the personnel involved. Manual Vacuum Aspiration (MVA): a technique for evacuating the contents of the uterus through use of a specially designed hand-held syringe. Mapping: see — gene mapping, linkage map, physical map. Mapping Population: the group of related organisms used in constructing a genetic map. Marginal Benefit: the additional benefit obtained by consuming the last (or next) unit of a commodity. Marker: see — genetic marker. Market Failure: the situation in which a market economy fails to attain economic efficiency. Market Mechanism: the interaction of buyers and sellers in market and mixed economies which determines the nature and volume of goods and services produced and their distribution. Mass Spectrometry: an instrument used to identify chemicals in a substance by their mass and charge. Maternal Mortality Ratio, Reported: the quotient between the number of maternal deaths in a given year and the number of live births in that same year, expressed by 100,000 live births, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, as reported from the national health authority. Maternal death is defined as the death of a woman while pregnant or within the 42 days after termination of that pregnancy, regardless of the length and site of the pregnancy, due to any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy itself or its care but not due to accidental or incidental causes. Mean: the average of a sample of observations. Mean Value: the average of a set of numbers. In epidemiology, the sample mean is the average value of the observations in a sample. Meatus: opening to the urethra. Median: the middle value when the values are arranged in order from the smallest to the largest. Median Value: the median is a number that separates the upper 50% of a sample from the lower 50%. It is the middle value of a distribution. Medical Eligibility Criteria: criteria for a woman’s eligibility to use a contraceptive method, based on the relative health risks and benefits of using such a method for a woman with a given condition. Medical Savings Account: allows or mandates people to place money in (tax-free) savings accounts to be used only for medical expenses, usually in conjunction with the purchase of a catastrophic stop-loss health insurance plan. Megabase (Mb): unit of length for DNA fragments equal to 1 million nucleotides and roughly equal to 1 cM. See also — centimorgan. Meiosis: the process of two consecutive cell divisions in the diploid progenitors of sex cells. Meiosis results in four rather than two daughter cells, each with a haploid set of chromosomes. See also — mitosis. Memory Cells: cells that can mount an accelerated antibody response to antigen. Mendelian Inheritance: one method in which genetic traits are passed from parents to offspring. Named for Gregor Mendel, who first studied and recognized the existence of genes and this method of inheritance. See also — autosomal dominant, recessive gene, sex-linked. Messenger RNA (mRNA): RNA that serves as a template for protein synthesis. The mature form of processed RNA used as a template for directing translation of proteins. See also — genetic code. Meta-analysis: an amalgamation of studies — a complex task to avoid misleading conclusions. The goal of combining results from different sources is to delineate which features are universal. The quality of the studies included is important to the final result. Many think that only prospective randomized clinical trials should be combined for a meta-analysis because such trials are usually of the highest quality. Metaphase: a stage in mitosis or meiosis during which the chromosomes are aligned along the equatorial plane of the cell. Methylation: (see DNA Methylation). MeV: 1,000,000 eV. MHC Restriction: the ability of T lymphocytes to respond only when they are presented with the appropriate antigen to which in association with either self MHC class I or class II molecules. Microarray: sets of miniaturized chemical reaction areas that may also be used to test DNA fragments, antibodies, or proteins. Microbial Genetics: the study of genes and gene function in bacteria, archaea, and other microorganisms. Often used in research in the fields of bioremediation, alternative energy, and disease prevention. See also — model organisms, biotechnology, bioremediation. Microinjection: a technique for introducing a solution of DNA into a cell using a fine microcapillary pipet. Microinjection (of Sperm): injection of one or more sperm under the outer covering of the oocyte for fertilization. Micronuclei: chromosome fragments that are not incorporated into the nucleus at cell division. Micturition: another term for urination or voiding. Migration Inhibition Factor: a lymphokine produced when a sensitized lymphocyte is exposed to an antigen to which it is sensitized. Migration inhibition factor inhibits the migration of these lymphocytes. Milking: checking for penile discharge by placing the fingers of one hand several centimeters behind the scrotum and bringing them upward and forward towards the base of the penis. Minimum Data Set (MDS): federally mandated screening and assessment form for Medicare- and Medicaid-certified long-term care facilities in the United States. This form is completed within 14 days of admission to the facility, quarterly, and when there is a significant change in the resident’s status. An annual update is also required. The information collected in the MDS is used in planning the care of the individual. Minor Histocompatibility Antigens: these antigens, encoded outside the MHC, are numerous but do not generate rapid graft rejection or primary responses of T cells in vitro. They do not serve as restricting elements in cell interactions. Missense: a mutation that alters a codon so that it encodes a different amino acid. Mitochondrial DNA: the genetic material found in mitochondria, the organelles that generate energy for the cell. Not inherited in the same fashion as nucleic DNA. See also cell, DNA, genome, nucleus. Mitochondrial Inheritance: mitochondria are inherited exclusively from women. Because they contain DNA, mitochondrial inheritance allows transmission of genes directly from the woman to her offspring. Mitogen: a substance that induces immunocompetent lymphocytes to undergo blast transformation, mitosis, and cell division (causing mitosis or cell division). Mitosis: the process of nuclear division in cells that produces daughter cells that are genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell. See also — meiosis. Mixed Formulae: often payment of professionals is based on a mix of methods (i.e. capitation plus fee-for-service for some services). Similarly, systems can be supplemented by bonus/target payments as an incentive for achieving certain objectives. Mixed Urinary Incontinence: combination of involuntary leakage associated with urgency and also with exertion, effort, sneezing, and coughing. A person has both urge and stress urinary incontinence. Mobilization: one of three sub-functions in the financing of health systems which aims at identifying and getting the money required to meet the health needs of the people, individually and collectively, in a given health system. Models: simplified descriptions of processes or systems. Model Organisms: a laboratory animal or other organism useful for research. Modeling: the use of statistical analysis, computer analysis, or model organisms to predict outcomes of research. Molecular Biology: the study of the structure, function, and makeup of biologically important molecules. Molecular Farming: the development of transgenic animals to produce human proteins for medical use. Molecular Genetics: the study of macromolecules important in biological inheritance. Molecular Medicine: the treatment of injury or disease at the molecular level. Examples include the use of DNA-based diagnostic tests or medicine derived from DNA sequence information. Monitoring: the ongoing process of collecting and analyzing information about the implementation of the activity such as newborn resuscitation. Monitoring and Evaluation: monitoring is the process of keeping track of events. For example, the monitoring of a project may involve counting the number of people coming into contact with it over a period of time or recording the way in which the project is administered and developed. Evaluation involves making a judgment as to how successful (or otherwise) a project has been, with success commonly being measured as the extent to which the project has met its original objectives. Both the “process” (activities) and “outcomes” (what is produced, for example in terms of changes in the health of those targeted by the project) can be monitored and evaluated. Monoclonal Antibody: antibodies with such high intrinsic specificity that only one or two antigenic determinants are recognized. Monogenic Disorder: a disorder caused by mutation of a single gene. See also — mutation, polygenic disorder. Monogenic Inheritance: see — monogenic disorder. Monokines: soluble substances, secreted by monocytes, that have a variety of effects on other cells. Monosomy: possessing only one copy of a particular chromosome instead of the normal two copies. See also — cell, chromosome, gene expression, trisomy. Moral Hazard: The possibility of consumers or providers exploiting a benefit system unduly to the detriment or disadvantage of other consumers, providers or the financing community as a whole, without having to bear the financial consequences or their behavior in part or in full. Morbidity: a state of disease. Morbid Map: a diagram showing the chromosomal location of genes associated with disease. Morula: a compact sphere of 16 blastomeres that forms at about 3-4 days after fertilization. Morbidity Rate: illness or disability rate, usually expressed per 1000 population. Mortality Rate: death rate per defined population, usually expressed per 1000. Mortality Rate from Land Transport Accidents, Estimated: the estimated total number deaths from land transport accidents, in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those ICD-10 codes V01-V89. Mortality Rate from Motor Vehicle Traffic Accidents, Estimated: the estimated total number deaths from motor vehicle traffic accidents, in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 codes E810-E819 or ICD-10 codes V02-V04(.1-.9), V09.2,V09.3,V12-V14(.3-.6), V19(.4-.6),V20-V28(.3-.9), V29-V78(.4-.9),V80(.3-.5), V81.1,V82.1,V83-V86(.0-.3), V87(.0-.8),V89.2,V89.9. Mosaic: an individual composed of two or more genetically dissimilar cell lines but from the same species. This can come about by somatic mutation or by grafting cells between individuals of close genetic constitution, such as dizygotic twins. Mosaicism: the presence of two or more populations of cells with different characteristics within one tissue or organ. Mother-To-Child Transmission (MTCT): transmission of HIV from an infected mother to her infant during pregnancy, labor or after delivery through breast milk. Mouse Model: see — model organisms. Multicenter Trial: a single trial conducted according to a single protocol but at more than one site (from ICH E6). These sites may be across multiple countries. They are advantageous because they offer more rapid patient accrual and allow for greater protocol complexity. Multicenter trials reduce the opportunity for an individual’s bias to influence the conduct of the trial; they increase the likelihood for the inclusion of a more representative study population and facilitate a higher standard for data processing and analysis. Multidisciplinary: HIA is not the preserve of any one disciplinary group. Instead, it draws on the experience and expertise of a wide range of “stakeholders”, who are involved throughout the process. These may include professionals with knowledge relevant to the issues being addressed, key decision makers, relevant voluntary organizations and — perhaps most importantly — representatives of the communities whose lives will be affected by the policy (Barnes and Scott-Samuel, 1999). Multifactorial Inheritance: inheritance of traits that are determined by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Multifactorial or Multigenic Disorder: see — polygenic disorder. Multiplexing: a laboratory approach that performs multiple sets of reactions in parallel (simultaneously); greatly increasing speed and throughput. Multistage Sampling: a multistage sample is an extension of a cluster sample, where the initial clusters are broken into further smaller clusters. Once a final selection of clusters to sample is made, a proportion of the subjects within each cluster is sampled. (e.g. if the sampling frame was an entire country then the country would be broken down into regions, then these regions would be broken down into cities and towns and then these would be randomly sampled). Multivariate Analysis: a technique of analysis of data that factors many variables. A mathematical model is constructed that simultaneously determines the effect of one variable while evaluating the effect of other factors that may have an influence on the variable being tested. The two most common algorithms developed to accomplish this task are the step-up and stop-down procedure. Variables are added to an initial small set or deleted from an initial large set while testing repeatedly to see which new factor makes a statistical contribution to the overall model. Murine: organism in the genus Mus. A rat or mouse. Mutagen: an agent that causes a permanent genetic change in a cell. Does not include changes occurring during normal genetic recombination. Mutagenicity: the capacity of a chemical or physical agent to cause permanent genetic alterations. See also — somatic cell genetic mutation. Mutation: an alteration of DNA sequencing in a gene those results in a heritable change in protein structure or function that frequently has adverse effects. Any heritable change in DNA sequence. See also — polymorphism. Myc Proto-Oncogenes: the proto-oncogene family that includes c-myc, N-myc, L-myc, and R-myc. They encode nuclear-associated DNA-binding proteins that affect DNA replication and transcription.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     National Health Accounts: information, usually in the form of indicators, a country may collect on its health expenditures. Indicators may include total health expenditure, public expenditure, private expenditure, out-of-pocket expenditure, tax-funded and other public expenditure, social security expenditure, public expenditure on health. National Level Planning: the continuous, comprehensive and coordinated planning for the allocation or investment of a country’s resources in a way that achieves the desired pace or level of economic and social development. Natural Antibodies: antibodies that occur naturally without deliberate antigen stimulation. Natural Capital: the environment and natural resources. Natural Killer Lymphocytes (NK Cells): lymphocytes that are active in the immune surveillance of tumor. NK cells can lyse malignant target cells in vitro and appear to need no prior sensitization. Near-term: thirty-four or more completed weeks of gestation. Need: what a person requires in terms of health care. Negative Predictive Value: in screening and diagnostic tests, the probability that an individual with a negative test result does not have the condition is referred to as the predictive value of a negative test. Neighborhood: the term neighborhood usually refers to a local area which is defined in some way physically (for example, an estate or an area bounded by major roads) or by people’s perceptions of what constitutes their local area. Neighborhoods are usually fairly small. For example, neighborhoods designated for New Deal for Communities funding are usually made up of around 4,000 households or around 10,000 people. Neonatal Death: death of a live-born infant during the first 28 completed days of life. May be subdivided into early neonatal death, occurring during the first seven days of life, and late neonatal death, occurring after the seventh day but before 28 completed days of life. Neonatal Depression: clinical signs of neonatal depression include low Apgar score and its components and correlates, such as hypotonia; depressed reflexes including cry, suck, Moro’s embrace; decreased consciousness; difficulty in initiating and maintaining respiration; poor color; and bradycardia. Neonatal Encephalopathy: a clinically defined syndrome of disturbed neurologic function in the earliest days of life in the term infant, manifested by difficulty with initiating and maintaining respiration, depression of tone and reflexes, subnormal level of consciousness, and often by seizures. Nervous System: voluntary nervous system and the involuntary nervous system are composed of the brain, the spinal cord, and sensory nerves, which provide messages to the brain from the body, and motor nerves, which provide messages from the brain to the muscles and help muscles function. Network: a grouping of individuals, organizations and agencies organized on a non hierarchical basis around common issues or concerns, which are pursued proactively and systematically, based on commitment and trust. Neu: see c-erb-b2 proto-oncogene. Neurogenic Bladder Dysfunction: condition in which there is an abnormality of the nerve supply to the lower urinary tract that results in incontinence or the inability to completely empty the bladder (urinary retention). It is usually caused by neurological conditions, such as diabetes, stroke, or spinal cord injury. NGO: Non-Governmental Organization. Nitrogenous Base: a nitrogen-containing molecule having the chemical properties of a base. DNA contains the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). See also — DNA. Nocturnal Enuresis: complaint of loss of urine during sleep. In children it is called bedwetting. Nocturnal Frequency: needing to void one or more times per night between the time the person goes to bed with the intention of sleeping and the time the person wakes with the intention of rising. Nocturnal Polyuria: present when more than one third of the 24-hour output occurs at night (normally 8 hours while person is in bed). The nighttime urine output excludes the last void before sleep but includes the first void of the morning. Non-Contributing Register: a register that does not submit data, either directly or indirectly, to the Central Repository. This is because some registers may wish to be part of the Register Network but do not meet one or more of the Criteria for a Contributing Register. Non-Experimental Research Design: lacking one or more of the features of internal control (e.g., random assignment, a comparison group) that characterizes true experimental designs (also known as pre-experimental designs). Nonmaleficence: it is the obligation not to harm or cause injury and is best known in the maxim primum nonnocere: “First, do no harm”. Although there are some subtle distinctions between nonmaleficence and beneficence, they often are considered as manifestations of a single principle. These two principles taken together are operative in almost every decision to treat patient, because every medical or surgical treatment has both benefits and risks, which must be balanced knowledgeably. Non-Probability Sample: any non-randomized sample. A non probability sample is one in which individuals are selected for a survey on the basis of some shared characteristic. For example, all the students in the same classroom, or all the patients attending a diabetes clinic. These examples, also known as convenience samples, introduce a bias into the measurement of the outcome of interest. For example, patents who attend diabetes clinic may either already know or suspect that they suffer from the disease. Thus, the prevalence of diabetes in this sample is likely to be very high, and not representative of the prevalence of diabetes in the community. Non-Reassuring Fetal Heart Rate Monitor Strip/Tracing: fetal heart rate patterns that may in some cases suggest the fetus is depressed, hypoxic, or acidotic, including persistent variable decelerations of fetal heart rate that become progressively deeper or longer lasting (generally to <70 beats per minute and lasting >60 seconds) and show persistent slow return to baseline, persistent late decelerations, prolonged deceleration (an isolated, abrupt decrease to levels below the baseline lasting at least 60-90 seconds), and sinusoidal heart rate pattern (regular oscillation of the baseline long-term variability resembling a sine wave, lasting at least 10 minutes, usually occurring at a rate of 3-5 cycles per minute and an amplitude of 5-15 beats per minute higher and lower than the baseline, not to be confused with benign small, frequent accelerations of low amplitude). Nonsense Mutation: a nucleotide substitution that results in a truncated protein product by generating a stop codon specifying premature cessation of translation within an open reading frame. Non-Specific Immunization: refers to stimulation of the general immune response by the use of materials (e.g., BCG or phytohemagglutinin) that are not antigenically related to the specific tumor. Northern Blot: a technique for transferring RNA from an electrophoresis gel to a nitrocellulose filter on which it can be hybridized to a complementary DNA (cDNA) probe. A gel-based laboratory procedure that locates mRNA sequences on a gel that are complementary to a piece of DNA used as a probe. See also — DNA, library. Nuclear Transcription Factors: proteins involved in regulating the expression of genes by controlling transcription. Some factors enhance and others repress gene expression and others do both, depending on the intracellular environment. Nuchal Translucency Measurement: accumulated fluid behind the fetal neck is measured in a standardized way. Nuclear Transfer: a laboratory procedure in which a cell’s nucleus is removed and placed into an oocyte with its own nucleus removed so the genetic information from the donor nucleus controls the resulting cell. Such cells can be induced to form embryos. This process was used to create the cloned sheep “Dolly”. See also — cloning. Nucleolar Organizing Region: a part of the chromosome containing rRNA genes. Nucleotide: a component of a DNA or RNA molecule composed of a nitrogenous base, one deoxyribose or ribose sugar, and one phosphate group. In DNA, adenine specifically joins to thymine and guanine joins to cytosine. In RNA, uracil replaces thymine. A subunit of DNA or RNA consisting of a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, thymine, or cytosine in DNA; adenine, guanine, uracil, or cytosine in RNA), a phosphate molecule, and a sugar molecule (deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA). Thousands of nucleotides are linked to form a DNA or RNA molecule. See also — DNA, base pair, RNA. Nucleus: the cellular organelle in eukaryotes that contains most of the genetic material. Nude Mice: mice born with a congenital absence of the thymus. The blood and thymus-dependent areas of the lymph nodes and spleen are depleted of lymphocytes. Null Hypothesis: this hypothesis, symbolized by H0, is a statement claiming that there is no difference between the experimental and population means. The alternative hypothesis (H1) is the opposite of the null hypothesis. Often in research we need to be able to test for both the positive and adverse outcomes, therefore a two-tailed hypothesis is chosen, even though the expectation of the experiment is in a particular direction. Number of Confirmed Cases of Measles: the number of cases from measles confirmed by laboratory, in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Confirmed Cases of Poliomyelitis: the number of cases from poliomyelitis due to wild poliovirus confirmed by laboratory in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Infant Deaths, Reported: the number of deaths in children under 1 year of age in a given year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, expressed as number of deaths, as reported from the national health authority. Number of Maternal Deaths, Reported: the number of maternal deaths in a given year and the number of live births in that same year for a given country, territory, or geographic area, as reported from the national health authority. Maternal death is defined as the death of a woman while pregnant or within the 42 days after termination of that pregnancy, regardless of the length and site of the pregnancy, due to any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy itself or its care, but not due to accidental or incidental causes. Number of Outpatient Care Facilities: the number of outpatient health care facilities, affiliated to all health institutions, in operation during a given year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Outpatient health care is defined as any professional encounter or contact, as an act of health service, between a non-hospitalized individual and a health worker responsible for the evaluation, diagnosis, treatment, or referral of that person in that encounter. Outpatient health care facility is defined as any type of physical area primarily designated to deliver outpatient health care services. Institutional affiliation includes any outpatient health care facility managed by the Ministry of Health or by a governmental equivalent, by Social Security systems, including those for the Army and Police Forces, and by private, for-profit or non-profit, voluntary-driven or not, organizations. Number of Registered Cases of Cholera: the number of cases registered from cholera in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Registered Cases of Dengue: the number of cases registered from dengue in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Registered Cases of Diphtheria in Children Under Age 5: the number of cases registered from diphtheria in children less than 5 years old in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Registered Cases of Human Rabies: the number of cases registered from human rabies in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Registered Cases of Malaria: the number of cases registered from malaria in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Registered Cases of Pertussis in Children Under Age 5: the number of incident cases registered from whooping cough in children less than 5 years old in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Registered Cases of Plague: the number of cases registered from plague in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Registered Cases of Tetanus Neonatorum: the number of cases registered from neonatal tetanus in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Registered Cases of Yellow Fever: the number of cases registered from yellow fever in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Registered Deaths due to AIDS: the number of deaths in total or by sex for which the underlying cause of death was Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) (ICD-9 codes 279.5 or 279.6; 042-044; ICD-10 codes B20-B24) for a given year, in a given country, territory or geographic area. Number of Registered Deaths due to Measles: the number of total registered deaths for which the underlying cause of death was measles (ICD-9 code 055; ICD-10 code B05) for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Number of Registered Deaths due to Neonatal Tetanus: the number of deaths for which the underlying cause of death was neonatal tetanus (ICD-9 code 771.3; ICD-10 code A033) for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Nurse: a person who has completed a program of basic nursing education and is qualified and authorized in his/ her country to practice nursing in all settings for the promotion of health, prevention of illness, care of the sick and rehabilitation.Read More