A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Salary: (prospective) remuneration which is fixed per period of time and does not vary either with the number of individuals served or with the number of services rendered. Sample Size: the specific size of the group or groups being studied. Generally, the larger the sample size, the more reliable the study results, and the more likely it is that the results can be applied to larger groups of people. Note that within the InfoBase a survey sample size (N) refers to the number of people included in a particular survey. Whereas Sample Size (n) for a particular data row refers to the number of people within that age/sex group that responded to the survey. Sampling: the process of selecting a number of subjects from all the subjects in a particular group or “universe”. Conclusions based on sample results may be attributed only to the population sampled. Any extrapolation to a larger or different population is a judgment or a guess and is not part of statistical inference. Sanger Sequencing: a widely used method of determining the order of bases in DNA. See also — sequencing, shotgun sequencing. Satellite: a chromosomal segment that branches off from the rest of the chromosome but is still connected by a thin filament or stalk. Scaffold: in genomic mapping, a series of contigs that are in the right order but not necessarily connected in one continuous stretch of sequence. Scheduled Toileting: assistance to toilet or use of bedpan or urinal offered on a fixed schedule, for example, every 2-4 hours. Scoping: scoping refers to the process of identifying the potential health impacts of a policy, program or project before they are quantified, as in a rapid HIA. It may include reviewing the relevant literature and evidence base and collecting the views of key stakeholders (those with expert knowledge of the project, those involved and those potentially affected) followed by the tabulation of the potential health impacts (Parry and Stevens, 2001). Screening: examination of usually symptom-free individuals to detect those with signs of a given disease. In relation to HIA, screening usually refers to an initial step being taken in order to determine whether a policy, program or project should be subject to a HIA. The criteria used for this process may include, for example, the size and cost of the activity in question, the extent of any obvious or immediate health effects or the perceived extent of longer term effects. A new road transport policy, for example, might meet these criteria in view of its potentially high financial cost, the possibility of immediate health effects in terms of road traffic accidents and likely longer term effects in terms of air quality. Screen-Positive Rate: percentage of the population with a positive screening test result. This includes true positives and false positives. Scrotal Abscess: bacterial infection of the scrotum, causing swelling and pain. Search Portal: the Search Portal is a web site that enables users to search the Central Repository which contains the trial registration data sets provided by Contributing Registers. The Search Portal is not a clinical trials register. Secondary Health Care: specialized ambulatory medical services and commonplace hospital care (outpatient and inpatient services). Access is often via referral from primary health care services. Secondary Infertility: infertility in a couple that has previously conceived at least once. Segregation: the normal biological process whereby the two pieces of a chromosome pair are separated during meiosis and randomly distributed to the germ cells. Semashko System: a uniform model of organizing health services introduced in CEE/CIS countries after the Second World War, and abolished in the early 1990s. Financing of health services is entirely through the state budget, with publicly owned health care facilities and publicly provided services. Different levels of state administration—central, regional, and local—were responsible for planning, allocation of resources and managing capital expenditures. Semi-Structured Interviews: interviews that combine closed-ended and open-ended questions that facilitate the description and explanation of various phenomena. Sensitivity: the proportion of truly diseased persons who are classified as diseased by the test. The sensitivity of a test is therefore the probability of a test being positive when the disease is present. The sensitivity of test may also be called the true positive rate. Sensitivity is the proportion of truly diseased individuals in the screened population who are identified as diseased by the screening test. Sensitize: the process of increasing the specific reactivity of a subject or cell to an agent. Commonly used to designate the process of increasing reactivity caused by specific antibodies or immune cells. Sepsis: presence of pathogenic organisms or their toxins in the blood. Sepsis of the genitourinary tract is referred to as urosepsis. Sequence: see — base sequence. Sequence Assembly: a process whereby the order of multiple sequenced DNA fragments is determined. Sequence Tagged Site (STS): short (200 to 500 base pairs) DNA sequence that has a single occurrence in the human genome and whose location and base sequence are known. Detectable by polymerase chain reaction, STSs are useful for localizing and orienting the mapping and sequence data reported from many different laboratories and serve as landmarks on the developing physical map of the human genome. Expressed sequence tags (ESTs) are STSs derived from cDNAs. Sequencing: determination of the order of nucleotides (base sequences) in a DNA or RNA molecule or the order of amino acids in a protein. Sequencing Technology: the instrumentation and procedures used to determine the order of nucleotides in DNA. Serial Monogamy: situation in which a person has a series of consecutive sexual relations of various durations, such that he or she has multiple partners over time, but never more than one partner at any single point in time. Service User Involvement: involving those who use services in their planning and organization by, for example, inviting them to give feedback on the quality of services and ease of access to them or by having service user representatives on the steering groups which monitor service provision and plan future developments. Sex: refers to the biological characteristics which define humans as female or male. [These sets of biological characteristics are not mutually exclusive as there are individuals who possess both, but these characteristics tend to differentiate humans as males and females. In general use in many languages, the term sex is often used to mean “sexual activity”, but for technical purposes in the context of sexuality and sexual health discussions, the above definition is preferred.] Sex Chromosome: the X or Y chromosome in human beings that determines the sex of an individual. Females have two X chromosomes in diploid cells; males have an X and a Y chromosome. The sex chromosomes comprise the 23rd chromosome pair in a karyotype. See also — autosome. Sex-Linked: traits or diseases associated with the X or Y chromosome; generally seen in males. See also — gene, mutation, sex chromosome. Sexual Health: it is a state of physical, emotional, mental and social well-being related to sexuality; it is not merely the absence of disease, dysfunction or infirmity. Sexual health requires a positive and respectful approach to sexuality and sexual relationships, as well as the possibility of having pleasurable and safe sexual experiences, free of coercion, discrimination and violence. For sexual health to be attained and maintained, the sexual rights of all persons must be respected, protected and fulfilled. Sexuality: it is a central aspect of being human throughout life and encompasses sex, gender identities and roles, sexual orientation, eroticism, pleasure, intimacy and reproduction. Sexuality is experienced and expressed in thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors, practices, roles and relationships. While sexuality can include all of these dimensions, not all of them are always experienced or expressed. Sexuality is influenced by the interaction of biological, psychological, social, economic, political, cultural, ethical, legal, historical and religious and spiritual factors. Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD): a disease that can be transmitted from one individual to another through sexual contact. Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI): a virus (such as HIV) or bacteria that can be transmitted from one individual to another through sexual contact. Sexual Rights: sexual rights embrace human rights that are already recognized in national laws, international human rights documents and other consensus documents. These include the right of all persons, free of coercion, discrimination and violence, to: the highest attainable standard of health in relation to sexuality, including access to sexual and reproductive health care services; seek, receive and impart information in relation to sexuality; sexuality education; respect for bodily integrity; choice of partner; decide to be sexually active or not; consensual sexual relations; consensual marriage; decide whether or not, and when to have children; and pursue a satisfying, safe and pleasurable sexual life. The responsible exercise of human rights requires that all persons respect the rights of others. Sexual Violence: any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances, or acts to traffic women’s sexuality, using coercion, threats of harm or physical force, by any person regardless of relationship to the victim, in any setting, including but not limited to home and work. Sharp Curettage: a procedure for emptying the uterus that involves scraping the uterine lining with a metal curette (also known as dilatation and curettage, or D&C). Shotgun Method: sequencing method that involves randomly sequenced cloned pieces of the genome, with no foreknowledge of where the piece originally came from. This can be contrasted with “directed” strategies, in which pieces of DNA from known chromosomal locations are sequenced. Because there are advantages to both strategies, researchers use both random (or shotgun) and directed strategies in combination to sequence the human genome. See also — library, genomic library. Shwartzman Reaction: a local non-immunologic inflammatory reaction with hemorrhage and necrosis produced by the injection of a bacterial endotoxin. Sickness Fund: third-party payer in social health insurance system, covering the community as a whole or sections of the population. Sievert (SU): the unit of dose equivalent in the SI system (1 Sv = 100 rem). Significance Level: a level of significance termed the alpha value is determined before the study has begun. The alpha value is the likelihood that a difference as large or larger that occurred between the study groups could be determined by chance alone. The alpha level is established by those designing the study and becomes the level of statistical significance. The most typical alpha level is 0.05. Signs: abnormalities indicative of disease identified by health care provider on examination of the patient. Simple Random Sample: a simple random sample (or single stage random) is an example of a probability sample. It is the ideal sampling frame for a survey because each eligible individual in the population has a known and non-zero chance of being included in the sample. However, this sampling frame is very expensive and often not logistically feasible. As a result, most surveys employ some form of cluster sampling. Sin Tax: tax for (luxury) goods with adverse effects on health such as alcohol, tobacco, etc. Single Gene Disorder: hereditary disorder caused by a mutant allele of a single gene (e.g., Duchenne muscular dystrophy, retinoblastoma, sickle cell disease). See also — polygenic disorders. Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP): DNA sequence variations that occur when a single nucleotide (A, T, C, or G) in the genome sequence is altered. See also — mutation, polymorphism, single-gene disorder. Single Patient Clinical Trials: these are indicated only in specific situations. They are generally used to evaluate rare diseases when other types of trials are inappropriate or when only a small percentage of patients respond to a specific treatment. Single patient clinical trials are useful to determine the response of a particular patient is due to placebo or if an adverse reaction is related to a specific medication. The disease should be chronic and the disease severity must be stable during the clinical trial duration. Small for Gestational Age: infant with a birth weight at the lower extreme of the normal birth weight distribution, commonly defined as a birth weight below the 10th percentile for gestational age. Snowball Sample: a non-probability sampling technique that involves obtaining subjects through chain referrals from friends, family, or acquaintances. Sphincter: muscular structure that opens and closes to allow bladder to store or empty urine. Social Care: services related to long-term inpatient care plus community care services, such as day care centers and social services for the chronically ill, the elderly and other groups with special needs such as the mentally ill, mentally handicapped and the physically handicapped. Social Group: any set of persons within society that differs from other sets due to demographic, economic or social characteristics such as age, sex, education level, race religion, income level, lifestyle, beliefs, etc. Social Health Insurance: social health insurance is an insurance program which meets at least one of the following three conditions: participation in the program is compulsory either by law or by the conditions of employment; the program is operated on behalf of a group and restricted to group members; or an employer makes a contribution to the program on behalf of an employee. Social Impact Assessment: social impact assessment is “the process of assessing or estimating, in advance, the social consequences that are likely to follow from specific policy actions or project development, particularly in the context of appropriate national, state or provisional policy legislation” (Vanclay and Bronstein, 1995). It is based on the assumption that the way in which the environment is structured can have a profound effect on people’s ability to interact socially with other people and to develop networks of support. For example, a major road cutting across a residential area can have the effect of dividing a community with implications for social cohesion (Hendley et al., 1998). Social Safety Net: basic arrangement to ensure that any person in a society can obtain financial and material help from the state to avoid absolute poverty and ensure survival. Social Security: the provision of social protection against a number of risks, such as incapacity to work resulting from disease or disability, unemployment, old age, or family maintenance. Somatic Cell: any cell in the body except gametes and their precursors. See also — gamete. Somatic Cell Gene Therapy: incorporating new genetic material into cells for therapeutic purposes. The new genetic material cannot be passed to offspring. See also — gene therapy. Somatic Cell Genetic Mutation: a change in the genetic structure that is neither inherited nor passed to offspring. Also called acquired mutations. See also germ line genetic mutation. Southern Blot: a technique used to detect specific DNA sequences by separating restriction enzyme digested DNA fragments on an electrophoresis gel, transferring (blotting) these fragments from the gel onto a membrane or nitrocellulose filter, followed by hybridization with a labeled probe to a specific DNA sequence. Transfer by absorption of DNA fragments separated in electrophoretic gels to membrane filters for detection of specific base sequences by radio-labeled complementary probes. Southern Blot Analysis: a molecular biology technique in which DNA is transferred to and fixed on a nylon or nitrocellulose membrane and studied with DNA probes that can then detect, for example, the presence of an oncogene. Specialist: a medical doctor who completed special post-graduate training and thereafter was licensed for expert consulting in a specific area of medicine. Specialty: a branch of medicine such as obstetrics and gynecology, orthopedics, pediatrics, psychiatry (which requires specialist training). Specificity: specificity is the proportion of truly nondiseased individuals who are so identified by the screening test. The proportion of a population of disease-free individuals who are classified as undiseased by a test. In contrast to the sensitivity of a test, the specificity of a test is the probability that a test being negative when the disease is absent. The cutoff point of a test for normality influences the specificity. Specific Fertility Rate in Women 15-19 Years of Age: ratio between the number of live births born to mothers 15 to 19 years of age during a given year and the mid-year female population 15 to 19 years of age, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, during a specified period, usually multiplied by 1,000. Spectral Karyotype (SKY): a molecular cytogenetic method in which all of the chromosomes in a metaphase spread are visualized in different colors (multicolor FISH). A graphic of all an organism’s chromosomes, each labeled with a different color. Useful for identifying chromosomal abnormalities. See also — chromosome. Spermatozoa: mature male germ cells (gametes). Splice Site: location in the DNA sequence where RNA removes the non-coding areas to form a continuous gene transcript for translation into a protein. Splice Site Mutation: nucleotide substitutions that occur in the sequence adjacent to intro-exon boundaries of genes. Splicing: the process by which introns are removed from heteronuclear RNA and the exons are joined together to maintain the open reading frame of the mRNA. Sponsor: an individual, company, institution, or organization which takes responsibility for the initiation, management, and/or financing of a clinical trial. (from ICH E6). Sponsor-Investigator: an individual who both initiates and conducts, alone or with others, a clinical trial, and under whose immediate direction the investigational product is administered to, dispensed to, or used by a subject (from ICH E6). Spontaneous Abortion: abortion that was not artificially induced; miscarriage. Unprovoked termination of pregnancy. Sporadic Cancer: cancer that occurs randomly and is not inherited from parents. Caused by DNA changes in one cell that grows and divides, spreading throughout the body. See also — hereditary cancer. Stakeholder: any party to a transaction which has particular interests in its outcome. Groups that have an interest in the organization and delivery of health care, and who either conduct, sponsor, or are consumers of health care research, such as patients, payers, health care practitioners. Standard Deviation: a measure of dispersion or variation. The mean tells where the values for a group are centered and the standard deviation is a summary of how widely dispersed the values are around this centre. Standard Error: the standard deviation of an estimate. It is used to calculate confidence intervals for the estimates. Standard of Care: professionally developed detailed written statement used to guide procedures. Standard Deviation: a measure of the variability within each group. If there is a normal (bell-shaped curve) distribution, approximately 95% of the values are within two standard deviations on both sides of the average. Standard Sampling (Proportionate): a stratified sampling technique is the process by which the population is divided into sub-groups. Sampling will then be conducted in each sub-group. Sub-groups are chosen because evidence is available that they are related to an outcome of interest (i.e. population coverage, health status, ethnicity, etc.). The strata chosen will vary by survey or country to reflect local needs. Standard Vocabulary: a set of terms covering a domain of knowledge (e.g., medicine) that can be used as a shared way to describe that domain of knowledge. The terms may be related to each other in meaningful ways (e.g., atenolol is an anti-hypertensive drug). Standardized Mortality Ratio / Rate (SMR): The number of deaths in a given year as a percentage of those expected (expected = standard mortality of the reference period, adjusted for age and sex). Statistical Significance: the degree of likelihood that a research finding (result) is due to a cause other than chance, or the affect of sampling bias (i.e. the finding is based on a randomly selected sample). Stratification: the division of a population into mutually exclusive groups, or strata. Steering Group: a group of people brought together to oversee a piece of work such as a HIA. Typically, a steering group might be made up of up of representatives of relevant professional groups, key statutory agencies and the local community and its terms of reference might include: -overseeing development and progress of the work; -agreeing the methodological framework and timescales; -providing an input of local knowledge and information; -acting as a bridge between partners; -facilitating the implementation of the assessment’s recommendations; and -helping to assimilate and disseminate the emerging lessons. (Barnes, 2000). Stem Cell: undifferentiated, primitive cells in the bone marrow that have the ability both to multiply and to differentiate into specific blood cells. Sterilization: the complete destruction of all microorganisms, including spores. It can be achieved by dry heat or steam under pressure. Stewardship: a function of a government responsible for the welfare of the population, and concerned with the trust and legitimacy with which its activities are viewed by the citizenry. It requires vision, intelligence and influence, primarily by the health ministry, which must oversee and guide the working and the development of the nation’s health actions on the government’s behalf. As used in the World Health Report 2000 components of stewardship are: Health policy formulation: defining the vision and direction for the health system; Regulation: setting fair rules of the game with a level playing field; Intelligence: assessing performance and sharing information. Stewardship is the overarching function that determines the success or failure of all other functions of the health system. It places the responsibility back on government and calls for the strengthening of ministries of health. However, it does not call for necessarily a hierarchical and controlling role of government but more of that of overseeing and steering of the health system. It calls for vision, setting of regulations and implementing them, and the capacity to assess and monitor performance over time. A strong stewardship should in fact permit a more efficient use of the private sector to meet the needs of the health system. Stillbirth: the complete expulsion or extraction from its mother of a product of conception, of at least 22 weeks gestation or 500 grams, which after separation did not show any signs of life. Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA): SEA has been defined as “the environmental assessment of a strategic action: a policy, plan or program (Therivel and Partidario, 1996). SEA developed out of the recognition that the environmental impact assessment of specific projects, whilst an extremely valuable device, does not allow sufficient scope for the examination of the effect of a combination of projects. A commitment to sustainable development requires that a strategic approach to the environment be adopted. (Wood, 1995). Strategy: the term strategy usually refers to a series of broad lines of action intended to achieve a set of goals and targets set out within a policy or program (Ritsatakis et al., 2000). For example, within the themes of Single Regeneration Budget or New Deal for Communities initiatives it is usual to set out the strategic direction needed to be taken in order to achieve the goals and objectives of each theme, such as reducing unemployment, improving health or raising educational attainment. Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI): involuntary loss of urine from the urethra due to effort or physical exertion; for example, during coughing and laughing. Structural Genomics: the effort to determine the 3D structures of large numbers of proteins using both experimental techniques and computer simulation. Structured Interviews: interviews with closed-ended, codable responses. Study (Research) Designs: a formalized and usually systematic plan to collect data that will inform a hypothesis. Subjects: the participants of research studies. Subsidy: a payment made by the government with the objective of reducing the market price of a particular product, or of maintaining the income of the producer. Substitution: in genetics, a type of mutation due to replacement of one nucleotide in a DNA sequence by another nucleotide or replacement of one amino acid in a protein by another amino acid. See also — mutation. Substitution Effect: a proportion of the change in demand as a consequence of change in relative prices. Supply: the amount of a product made available for sale at a particular price. Supplier-Induced Demand: a phenomenon whereby a health care provider, usually a physician, influences the level of a person’s demand for health care services. Suppository: medication adapted for introduction into the rectum, vagina, or urethra. Suppository bases are solid at room temperature but melt or dissolve at body temperature. Suppression: a mechanism for producing a specific state of immunologic unresponsiveness by the induction of suppressor T cells. This type of unresponsiveness is passively transferable by suppressor T cells or their soluble products. Suppressor Gene: a gene that can suppress the action of another gene. Suppressor T Cells: represent an important set of feed-back controls, centered around sensitized T lymphocytes, through which inhibitory populations of these T cells suppress the production of sensitized lymphocytes and antibody-forming cells. Suprapubic: above the pubic bone. Suprapubic Catheterization: a surgical procedure involving insertion of a tube or similar instrument through the anterior abdominal wall above the Symphysis pubis into the bladder to permit urine drainage from the bladder. Surveillance: ongoing collection of information on developments within a sector. The routine collection and analysis of data that may be used to take appropriate action. In the context of unsafe abortion, surveillance could include collecting data on maternal deaths due to complications of abortion, and caseloads within services for treatment of abortion complications. Continuous analysis, interpretation and feedback of systematically collected data, generally using methods distinguished by their practicality, uniformity, and rapidity rather than by accuracy or completeness. By observing trends in time, place and persons, changes can be observed or anticipated and appropriate action including investigative or control measures, can be taken. Sources of data may relate directly to disease or to factors influencing disease. Survey: the process of collecting information by canvassing a chosen group. Surveys Used in Analysis: main survey in analysis — adjustment of country-reported survey data to produce comparable estimates requires a survey that: is recent; is nationally representative or has broad country coverage; uses one or more of the following definitions: current smoker, current daily smoker, current smoker of cigarettes, provides age-specific prevalence rates. Surveys meeting these criteria are preferred for analysis. Where multiple surveys of the same standard exist, surveys are weighted by sample size for inclusion in the analysis. Additional surveys — sometimes a country has several surveys that can be used in the analysis. Surveys Used in Analysis — BMI: surveys chosen are the ones with — the best coverage, age specific rates for the overweight/obesity prevalence value, and/or mean BMI. Sustainability: the capacity to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability to meet future needs. Sustainability and Sustainable Development: the plethora of regeneration and neighborhood renewal initiatives under way are all intended to provide sustainable changes — that is to say, benefits for the future as well as the present. A commonly used definition of sustainable development is “development which meets the needs of present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). Swab: a rolled piece of cotton or gauze attached to the end of a stick or clamp, used for applying medications or collecting biological samples from a surface. Sympathetic Nerves: fight or flight component of the autonomic nervous system, which originates in the thoracic and lumbar region of the spinal cord. Stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system that innervates the bladder will promote bladder filling by relaxing the bladder (detrusor) muscle and contraction the internal proximal portion of the urethral sphincter to prevent urine from entering the urethra. Sympathetic fibers that innervate the intestine will cause reduced motility and reduced secretions. Symptom: abnormal phenomenon experienced by patient and indicative of disease. Syndrome: the group or recognizable pattern of symptoms or abnormalities that indicate a particular trait or disease. Syngamy: the final stage of the fertilization process in which the haploid chromosome sets from the male and female gametes come together following breakdown of the pronuclear membranes to form the zygote. Syngeneic (Isogeneic): genetically identical members of the same species. Pertaining to genetically identical or nearly identical animals, such as identical twins of highly inbred animals. Syngraft (Isograft): a graft derived from a syngeneic donor. Synteny: genes occurring in the same order on chromosomes of different species. See also linkage, conserved sequence. System: set of elements interconnected in a complex whole fulfilling a function. Range of values an index may take depending on the actual values of each of the parameters integrated in it. For the purpose of the World Health Report 2000, indices have been calculated based on best available figures. Where data were missing, estimates have been used, in accordance with classical estimation techniques. The resulting index is subject to revision once actual data become available. Consequently, present values may have to be adjusted within the range indicated by the uncertainty interval. Systematic Detection: all eligible subjects are screened for the presence of the condition being investigated. Systematic Interventions: interventions involving the use of a standardized protocol based on best practice guidelines. Systematic Sampling: systematic sampling incorporates a systematic method to a random sample (for example, the randomly selected number is five; therefore every fifth household would be sampled on selected streets).Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Absolute Poverty: a situation where the per capita income is equivalent to less than one international dollar per day. Absorbed Dose: the energy imparted to matter by ionizing radiation per unit mass of irradiated material. The unit is gray (Gy), defined to be an energy absorption of 1 joule / kg. The old unit was the rad, which was defined as an energy absorption of 100 ergs / g. Absorbent Products: pads and garments, either disposable, worn to contain urinary incontinence or uncontrolled urine leakage. Absorbent products include shields, guards, undergarment pads, combination pad-pant systems, diaper like garments, and bed pads. Acceptability: degree to which a service meets the cultural needs and standards of a community. This in turn will affect utilization of that service. Access to Social Support Networks: one of the aspects of the responsiveness of health systems whereby health care activities are integrated into community interaction in order to ensure patient welfare. Accessible Antigen: antigens of self that are in contact with antibody-forming and to a host that is normally tolerant. Accessibility of Health Care: a measure of the proportion of a population that reaches appropriate health services. Accessory Cell: cell required for, but actually mediating, a specific immune response. Often used to describe antigen-presenting cells. Accountability: the obligation to disclose periodically, in adequate detail and consistent form, to all directly and indirectly responsible or properly interested parties, the purposes, principles, procedures, relationships, results, incomes, and expenditures involved in any activity, enterprise, or assignment so that they can be evaluated by the interested parties. Accreditation, also see Licensing: the process by which an authorized agency or organization evaluates and recognizes an institution or an individual according to a set of “standards” describing the structures and processes that contribute to desirable patient outcomes. Acetylcholine: substance (neurotransmitter) that plays an important part in the transmission of nerve impulses in the parasympathetic nervous system. These transmitters control smooth muscles, including those of the bladder and urethra, and stimulate the bladder to contract. Acidemia: increased concentration of hydrogen ions in the blood. Acidemia-Pathologic: a pH level associated with adverse neurologic sequelae; the threshold for pathologic-acidemia varies among research protocols, but some investigators have suggested a pH of less than 7. Acontractile Detrusor: detrusor muscle that cannot be demonstrated to contract during testing (urodynamic studies). Acquired Genetic Mutation: see somatic cell genetic mutation. Action: any measure taken with some intention. Active Immunization: direct immunization of the intact individual or of immunocompetent cells derived from and returned to the individual. Active Immunotherapy: may be divided into two groups: specific immunogens and non-specific adjuvants. Active specific immunotherapy is attempted by the immunization of a tumor-bearing patient with autochthonous altered (radiation, chemical) tumor cells. Non-specific immunotherapy attempts to augment antitumor immunologic activity with non-specific stimulants such as BCG or C. Parvum. Activities of Daily Living: activities necessary to meet essential human needs, such as bathing, grooming, toileting, and social interactions. Actuarial (Life Table) Survival: this technique uses grouped information to estimate the survival curve. The data are grouped into fixed time periods (e.g., months, years) that include the maximum follow-up. The survival curve is estimated as a continuous curve and gives an estimate of the proportions of a group of patients who will be alive at different times after the initial observation. The group includes patients with incomplete follow-up. Acute Care (Short-Stay): hospitals with an average length of stay of 30 days or less. Acute Incontinence: incontinence that comes on suddenly, usually caused by a new illness or condition, and is often easily reversed with appropriate treatment of the condition that caused it. Adaptation: a process whereby protection accorded a foreign graft from the immune reaction of the recipient renders it less vulnerable to immunologic attack by the host. Additive Genetic Effects: when the combined effects of alleles at different loci are equal to the sum of their individual effects. See also — anticipation, complex trait. Adenine (A): a nitrogenous base, one member of the base pair AT (adenine-thymine). See also — base pair, nucleotide. Adequacy: application of measures, technologies, and resources which are qualitatively and quantitatively sufficient for achieving the desired goal. Adjusted Relative Risk: the ratio of risk of disease or death among the exposed to that of the risk among the unexposed adjusted for a specific covariate (eg, maternal age, weeks of gestation, size of gestational age). Adjuvant: a substance that when mixed with an antigen enhances its antigenicity. Adnexae: ovaries, fallopian tubes and supporting structures. Adoptive Immunization: the transfer of immunity from one individual to another by means of specifically immune lymphoid cells or materials derived from such cells that are capable of transferring specific immunologic information to the recipient’s lymphocytes. Adverse Selection: a situation where individuals are able to purchase insurance at rates which are below actuarially fair rates, because information known to them is not available to insurers (asymmetric information). Affected Relative Pair: individuals related by blood, each of whom is affected with the same trait. Examples are affected sibling, cousin, and avuncular pairs. See also — avuncular relationship. Affinity: a measure of the binding constant of a single antigen-combining site with a monovalent antigenic determinant. Affordability: extent to which the intended clients of a service can pay for it. AFP: see α-fetoprotein. Age-Rating: technique for adjusting insurance premiums according to the age of the insured. Age Specific Rates: these are calculated by dividing the number of cases of deaths or other health variable occurring in each specified age group by the corresponding population or survey sample in the same age group. Sometimes, this is expressed as a rate per 100,000 population; other times as a percent of sampled population. This rate may be calculated for a particular age and sex grouping to show how a risk factor, occurrence of death or incidence of a disease changes with age and sex. Age Standardization: rates are adjusted for age to facilitate comparisons between populations which have different age structures. (There are two different methods commonly used to adjust for age, direct or indirect. We use direct standardization in which age-specific rates are multiplied againsta constant population, the WHO standard population EIP 1999). Agency Principle: the process of having one party (the agent) make decisions on behalf of another (the principal). Agglutinin: any antibody that produces aggregation or agglutination of a particular or insoluble antigen. Aggregation Technique: a technique used in model organism studies in which embryos at the 8-cell stage of development are pushed together to yield a single embryo (used as an alternative to microinjection). See also — model organisms. AIDS: acquired immune deficiency syndrome. AIDS Incidence: the number of new cases registered from Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) for a given sex, in a specific year, expressed per 1,000,000 population, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Algorithm: a sequence of logical steps that should be taken when dealing with a given task. Allele: one of two or more alternate forms of a gene. Alternative form of a genetic locus; a single allele for each locus is inherited from each parent (e.g., at a locus for eye color the allele might result in blue or brown eyes). See also — locus, gene expression. Allele Specific Oligonucleotides: synthetic oligonucleotide designed to hybridize to a specific sequence, and under the right conditions, to fail to hybridize to a related sequence. Allele specific oligonucleotides also are use as PCR primers in several methods similarly designed to distinguish between closely related alleles. Allelic Exclusion: the ability of heterozygous lymphoid cell to produce only an allelic form of an antigen-specific receptor (immunoglobulin or T cell receptor) when they have the genetic endowment to produce both. Allergen: a substance (antigen or hapten) that incites allergy. Allergy: a state of specific increased reactivity to an antigen or hapten such as occurs in hay fever. The term is used to designate states of delayed sensitivity caused by contact allergens. Alloantibody (Isoantibody): any antibody produced by one individual that reacts specifically with an antigen present in another individual of the same species. The isoantibody is commonly used in hematology; the alloantibody is used in tissue transplantation. Allogeneic: variation in alleles among members of the same species. Referring to genetically dissimilar individuals of the same species. Allogeneic Disease: any systemic illness resulting from a graft-vs-host response when the graft contains immunologically competent cells and the host is immunologically competent cells and the host is immunologically incompetent (e.g., runt disease). Allograft (Homograft): a graft derived from an allogeneic donor. Alloimmune: specifically immune to an allogeneic antigen. Alpha Error: the error of rejecting a true null hypothesis, i.e. declaring that a difference exists when it does not. The rejection of the null hypothesis when it is, in fact, correct. Also called a Type I error. Alternative Complement Pathway: the mechanism of complement activation that does not involve activation of the C1-C4-C2 pathway by antigen-antibody complexes and begins with the activation of C3. Alternative Splicing: different ways of combining a gene’s exons to make variants of the complete protein Ambulatory Care: all types of health services provided to patients who are not confined to an institutional bed as inpatients during the time services are rendered. Amino Acid: any of a class of 20 molecules that are combined to form proteins in living things. The sequence of amino acids in a protein and hence protein function are determined by the genetic code. Amplification: an increase in the number of copies of a specific DNA fragment; can be in vivo or in vitro. See also — cloning, polymerase chain reaction. Anal Sphincters: two rings of muscles surrounding the rectum and anus, which help control passage of bowel movements. Anamnestic Response (Recall Phenomenon, Memory Phenomenon): an accelerated response of antibody production to an antigen that occurs in an animal that has previously responded to the antigen. Anaphylaxis, Acute: systemic shock (often fatal) that develops in a minutes after subsequent exposure to a specific foreign antigen to which the host has already reacted. Anergy: absence of a hypersensitivity reaction that would be expected in other similarly sensitized individuals. Aneuploidy: in this condition there is an extra or missing chromosome. Animal Model: see — model organisms. Anonymous: presented without identity; anonymity is an ethical practice whereby research results cannot be linked to any particular individual. Annotation: adding pertinent information such as gene coded for, amino acid sequence, or other commentary to the database entry of raw sequence of DNA bases. See also — bioinformatics. Annual Birth Average: total number of live births expected in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Technical Note: The annual births average corresponds to an estimated value, consistent with the corresponding United Nations fertility medium-variant quinquennial population projections. Annual Death Average: total number of deaths expected in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Technical Note: The annual deaths average corresponds to an estimated value, consistent with the corresponding United Nations fertility medium-variant quinquennial population projections. Annual GDP Growth Rate: the annual average rate of change of the gross domestic product (GDP) at market prices based on constant local currency, for a given national economy, during a specified period of time. It expresses the difference between GDP values from one period to the next as a proportion of the GDP from the earlier period, usually multiplied by 100. Technical Note: GDP average annual growth rates are those estimated by the World Bank from the corresponding data in the United Nations’ Systems of National Accounts expressed in 1995 US dollars constant prices, using the least-squares method. The least-squares growth rate is estimated by fitting a linear regression trend line to the logarithmic annual values of the variable in the relevant period. The calculated growth rate is an average rate that is representative of the available observations over the entire period. It does not necessarily match the actual growth rate between any two periods. Annual Growth Rate: indicator used in population studies to assess average change in the size of a population from one year to the next. Annual National Health Expenditure as a Proportion of The Gross Domestic Product (GDP): estimates of public expenditure corresponds to expenditures of the institutions of General Government in the function of Health (Division 07) of the international classification of Government Expenditures by functions or purposes of the Systems of National Accounts of United Nations (SCN 1993); derived from the Government Financial Statistical Yearbook 2002 (GSF 2002) from the International Monetary Fund or country’s health account studies. Estimates of private expenditure in health corresponds to the expenditures by the Household Sector in the function of Health or Health or Health Personal Care of the international classification of Individual Consumption by Purposes of the SCN 1993; derived from data from the Consumer Price Index, household surveys, and/or national studies on health accounts. Annual Number of Registered Deaths Under-5 due to Diphtheria: the number of deaths in children under 5 years of age from diphtheria (ICD-9 code 032 ; ICD-10 code A36) as the underlying cause of death, as registered in their death certificates, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Annual Number of Registered Deaths Under-5 due to Pertussis: the number of deaths in children under 5 years of age from whooping cough (ICD-9 code 033; ICD-10 code A37) as the underlying cause of death, as registered in their death certificates, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Annual Number of Registered Deaths Under-5 due to Tetanus: the number of deaths in children under 5 years of age from tetanus (ICD-9 code 037; ICD-10 code A35) as the underlying cause of death, as registered in their death certificates, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Annual Parasite Index: the number of confirmed new cases from malaria registered in a specific year, expressed per 1,000 individuals under surveillance, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Annual parasite index (API) refers to high and moderate malaria transmission risk areas. Annual Population Growth Rate: the annual average rate of change of population size, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, during a specified period. It expresses the ratio between the annual increase in the population size and the total population for that year, usually multiplied by 100. The annual increase in the population size is defined as a sum of differences: the difference between births less deaths and the difference between immigrants less emigrants, in a given country, territory or geographic area at a given year. Annual Proportion of Registered Deaths Under 5 Years of Age due to Intestinal Infectious Diseases (ADD): proportion of deaths in children under 5 years of age for which the underlying cause of death was an intestinal infectious disease (ICD-9 codes 001-009; ICD-10 codes A00-A09) for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Annual Proportion of Registered Deaths Under 5 Years of Age due to Acute Respiratory Infections (ARI): proportion of deaths in children under 5 years of age for which the underlying cause of death was an acute respiratory infection (ICD-9 codes 460-466, 480-487; ICD-10 codes J00-J22) for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Antibiotics:  substances that inhibit the growth of or kill microorganisms (bacteria and viruses); used to treat infections. Antibody (Ab): a substance (usually a gamma globulin) that can be incited in an animal by an antigen or by a hapten combined in an animal by an antigen or by a hapten combined with a carrier and that reacts specifically with the antigen or hapten. Some antibodies can occur naturally without known antigen stimulation. Antibody-dependent Cell-mediated Cytotoxicity:  a phenomenon in which target cells, coated with antibody, are destroyed by specialized killer cells (NK cells and macrophages), which bear receptors for the Fc portion on the coating antibody. Antibody Reaction Site (Antigen-binding Site, Antibody-combining Site): the inverted surface site on antibody that reacts with the antigen determinant site on the antigen. Antibody Response: the production of antibody in response to stimulation by specific antigen. Anticholinergic: drug that interferes with the effects of acetylcholine, thus impeding the action of the parasympathetic nervous system. An anticholinergic drug will facilitate storage of urine by increasing bladder capacity and decreasing bladder overactivity. Anticipation: each generation of offspring has increased severity of a genetic disorder; e.g., a grandchild may have earlier onset and more severe symptoms than the parent, who had earlier onset than the grandparent. See also — additive genetic effects, complex trait. Antigen: a substance that can react specifically with antibodies and under certain conditions can incite an animal to form specific antibodies. Extrinsic: an antigen that is not a constituent or product of the cell. Intrinsic: an antigen that is a constituent or product of the cell. Antigen Determinant: a small, three-dimensional everted surface configuration on the antigen molecule that specifically reacts with the antibody reaction site on the antibody molecule. Antigen-presenting Cell: a specialized type of cell, bearing cell antigen-presenting cell surface class II major histocompatibility complex molecules, and involved in the processing and presentation of antigen to inducer or helper T cells. Antigen Receptor: the specific antigen-binding receptor on T or B lymphocytes; these receptors are transcribed and translated from rearrangements of V genes. Antigenic Modulation: loss of antigenicity or change in antigenic markers by which tumor cells may avoid immunologic identification or destruction. Antigenic Paralysis: see immunologic tolerance. Antioncogene: see tumor suppressor gene. Antisense: nucleic acid that has a sequence exactly opposite to an mRNA molecule made by the body; binds to the mRNA molecule to prevent a protein from being made. See also — transcription. Anus: final two inches of the rectum, surrounded by the internal anal sphincter and the external sphincter. Apoptosis: programmed cell death, the body’s normal method of disposing of damaged, unwanted, or unneeded cells. A form of programmed cell death caused by activation of endogenous molecules leading to the fragmentation of DNA. See also — cell. Appraisal (Assessment): appraisal or assessment follows on from the scoping stage of a HIA, where the potential health impacts which have been identified are assessed and evaluated using the available evidence base. Appropriate (ness): if an expected health benefit exceeds the expected negative consequences by a large enough margin to justify performing the procedure rather than other alternatives. Arrayed Library: individual primary recombinant clones (hosted in phage, cosmid, YAC, or other vector) that are placed in two-dimensional arrays in microtiter dishes. Each primary clone can be identified by the identity of the plate and the clone location (row and column) on that plate. Arrayed libraries of clones can be used for many applications, including screening for a specific gene or genomic region of interest. See also — library, genomic library, gene chip technology. Arthus Reaction: an inflammatory reaction characterized by edema, hemorrhage, and necrosis that follows the administration of antigen to an animal that already possesses precipitating antibody to that antigen. Artificial Urinary Sphincter: mechanical device surgically implanted into the patient that consists of a cuff placed around the bulbar urethra or bladder neck, a pressure-regulating balloon, and a pump. The device is used to control opening and closing of the urethra manually and is the most commonly used surgical procedure for the treatment of male urethral insufficiency. Asphyxia: a clinical situation of damaging acidemia, hypoxia, and metabolic acidosis. This definition, although traditional, is not specific to cause. A more complete definition of birth asphyxia includes a requirement for a recognizable sentinel event capable of interrupting oxygen supply to the fetus or infant. This definition fails to include conditions that are not readily recognized clinically, such as occult abruption, but is probably correct in a majority of cases. Assembly: putting sequenced fragments of DNA into their correct chromosomal positions. Atonic Bladder:  often caused by peripheral neuropathies, such as diabetes mellitus. The bladder is flaccid and overdistended with urine. Overflow incontinence may occur. Also referred to as a lower motor neuron bladder. Atopy: a hereditary predisposition of various individuals to develop immediate-type hypersensitivity on contact with certain antigens. Attributable Risk: the difference in actual incidence between exposed and unexposed groups, providing a realistic estimate of the change in incidence in a given population. A modest increase in relative risk will produce only a small number of cases when clinical events are rare, such as venous thromboembolism and arterial thrombosis in young women. Audit Trail: documentation that allows reconstruction of the course of events (from ICH E6). In relation to trial registration applies to the ability to monitor changes made to the trial registration data set after the time of initial registration. Auto- : self or same. Autoantibodies: antibodies produced by an animal that react with the animal’s own antigens. The stimulus is not known but could be the animal’s own antigens or cross-reacting foreign antigens. Autoantigen: a self-antigen that incites the formation of autoantibodies. Autochthonous (Indigenous): found in the same individual in which it originates, as in the case of a neoplasm; autochthonous tumor is a tumor borne by the host of origin. Autograft: a graft derived from the same individual to whom it is transplanted. Autoimmune: condition in which the body produces antibodies to its own tissue. Autologous: derived from the recipient itself. Autonomy:  one of the aspects of the responsiveness of health systems whereby one enjoys the freedom to decide for oneself on alternative treatment, testing and care options, including the decision to refuse treatment, if of sound mind. It literally means self-rule. In medical practice, the principle of autonomy implies personal rule of the self that is free both from controlling interferences by others and from personal limitations that prevent meaningful choice, such as inadequate understanding. Autonomy provides a strong moral foundation for informed consent, in which a patient, fully informed about his/her medical condition and available therapies, freely chooses to be a willing participant in any treatment or non-treatment. Autoradiography: a technique that uses X-ray film to visualize radioactively labeled molecules or fragments of molecules; used in analyzing length and number of DNA fragments after they are separated by gel electrophoresis. Autosomal Dominant: an allele located on an autosome (non-sex chromosome) that express itself phenotypically in the presence of the same or a different allele (ie, in a homozygous or heterozygous condition). A gene on one of the non-sex chromosomes that is always expressed, even if only one copy is present. The chance of passing the gene to offspring is 50% for each pregnancy. See also — autosome, dominant, gene. Autosomal Recessive: an allele located on an autosome that does not express itself phenotypically in the presence of a dominant allele (ie, in a heterozygous condition). It is only phenotypically expressed in a homozygous condition. Autosome: a chromosome not involved in sex determination. The diploid human genome consists of a total of 46 chromosomes: 22 pairs of autosomes, and 1 pair of sex chromosomes (the X and Y chromosomes). See also — sex chromosome. Availability: identifies the presence or absence of needed health care services. Average Length of Stay: average length of stay is computed by dividing the (total) number of days in inpatient or acute care institutions by the number of discharges (or admissions). Avuncular Relationship: the genetic relationship between nieces and nephews and their aunts and uncles.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Tandem Repeat Sequences: multiple copies of the same base sequence on a chromosome; used as markers in physical mapping. See also — physical map. Target Income: a specified income which a provider is assumed to aim for. Targeted Mutagenesis: deliberate change in the genetic structure directed at a specific site on the chromosome. Used in research to determine the targeted region’s function. See also — mutation, polymorphism. Technology Transfer: the process of transferring scientific findings from research laboratories to the commercial sector. Telomerase: the enzyme that directs the replication of telomeres. Telomere: the end of a chromosome. This specialized structure is involved in the replication and stability of linear DNA molecules. See also — DNA replication. Temporal Sample: a non-probability sampling technique that involves recruiting subjects over a specified period of time. Teratogenic: substances such as chemicals or radiation that cause abnormal development of an embryo. See also — mutatgen. Teratogenicity: the ability to cause defects in a developing fetus—a potential side-effect of many drugs. Term: from 37 completed weeks to less than 42 completed weeks (259 to 293 days) of gestation. Term Pregnancy: from 37 to 42 completed weeks of gestation since the first day of the last menstrual period. Tertiary Health Care: refers to medical and related services of high complexity and usually high cost. Third-Party Payer: Any organization, public or private, that pays or insures health care expenses for beneficiaries at the time at which they are patients. Threshold Traits: traits that are not manifested until a certain threshold of liability are exceeded. Thrombophilia: a tendency to the occurrence of thrombosis, the presence or development of an aggregation of blood factors frequently causing vascular obstruction. Thymine (T): a nitrogenous base, one member of the base pair AT (adenine-thymine). See also — base pair, nucleotide. Time-Motion Studies: studies that involve highly-structured observation of activity patterns; researchers closely follow subjects while documenting each discreet activity. T Lymphocyte (T Cells): lymphocytes that have matured and differentiated under thymic influence, termed thymus-dependent lymphocytes. These cells are involved primarily in the mediation of cellular immunity as well as in tissue and organ graft rejection. Tolerance: antigen-specific turnoff or unresponsiveness of B or T cells; usually produced as a result of contact with that antigen under non-immunizing conditions. Toolkit: the term toolkit is generally held to mean an information resource including, for example, routinely available data which may be required for quantifying potential health impacts, a compilation of literature on health determinants or a template for organizing a HIA or parts of the HIA process such as a workshop for key stakeholders. Topical: when a medication (e.g., cream, ointment) is applied to a specific site or location, usually on the skin or external mucosa. Topoisomerase: an enzyme that controls conformational changes in DNA and aids in orderly progression of DNA replication, gene transcription, and separation of daughter chromosomes by cell division. Total Expenditure on Health: total (or national) expenditure on health is based on the following identity and functional boundaries of medical care: Personal health care services + Medical goods dispensed to outpatients = Total personal expenditure on health + Services of prevention and public health + Health administration and health insurance = Total current expenditure on health + Investment into medical facilities = Total expenditure on health. Total Fertility Rate: the expected average number of children that would be born to a woman in her lifetime, if she were to pass through her childbearing years experiencing the age-specific fertility rates prevailing in a given year/period, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Totipotent: able to differentiate alone any line; the capacity of a cell or group of cells to produce all of the products of conception — the extra-embryonic membrane and tissue, the embryo, and subsequently the fetus. Toxicogenomics: the study of how genomes respond to environmental stressors or toxicants. Combines genome-wide mRNA expression profiling with protein expression patterns using bioinformatics to understand the role of gene-environment interactions in disease and dysfunction. Tp53 Gene: a tumor suppressor gene that encodes a nuclear phosphoprotein that arrests cells from entering the S-phase of the cell cycle. Located on chromosome 17(pl13), Tp53 is postulated to contribute to diverse tumorigenesis. Transaction Costs: the costs which are incurred by the process of negotiating between buyer (= third-party payer/ purchaser) and seller (= provider). Transcervical procedure: any procedure that requires passage of an instrument or device through the cervix into the uterus (e.g. IUD insertion, MVA, endometrial biopsy). Transcription: the process of RNA synthesis from a DNA template that is directed by RNA polymerase. The synthesis of an RNA copy from a sequence of DNA (a gene); the first step in gene expression. The process of converting the DNA code into a complementary mRNA segment. Transfer of genetic code information from one kind of nucleic acid to another. See also — translation. Transcription Factor: a protein that binds to regulatory regions and helps control gene expression. Transcriptome: the full complement of activated genes, mRNAs, or transcripts in a particular tissue at a particular time. Transfection: the introduction of foreign DNA into a host cell. See also — cloning vector, gene therapy. Transfer Factor: a heat-liable, dialyzable extract of human lymphocytes (a lymphokine) that is capable of conferring specific antigen reactivity to the donor. Transfer RNA (tRNA): a class of RNA having structures with triplet nucleotide sequences that are complementary to the triplet nucleotide coding sequences of mRNA. The role of tRNAs in protein synthesis is to bond with amino acids and transfer them to the ribosomes, where proteins are assembled according to the genetic code carried by mRNA. Transformation: a process by which the genetic material carried by an individual cell is altered by incorporation of exogenous DNA into its genome. Transgenic: an experimentally produced organism in which DNA has been artificially introduced and incorporated into the organism’s germ line. See also — cell, DNA, gene, nucleus, germ line. Transient (acute) Urinary Incontinence: temporary episodes of urinary incontinence that is reversible once the cause or causes of the episode(s) are identified and treated. Transinstitutionalization: the transfer of patients from one type of institutional setting to another, usually from long-stay psychiatric wards to some form of nursing home. Transitional Economy: term used to describe economies which used to be run on command lines, but which are now giving an increased role to market forces. Translation: the process in which the genetic code carried by mRNA directs the synthesis of proteins from amino acids. The process by which specific amino acids are incorporated into a protein as dictated by the sequence of the mRNA template. See also — transcription. Translocation: a mutation in which a large segment of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome. Non-homologous recombination. See also — mutation. Transmission: passage of disease-causing microorganisms from one person to another. Transposable Element: a class of DNA sequences that can move from one chromosomal site to another. Trial Phase: biomedical clinical trials of experimental drug, treatment, device or behavioral intervention may proceed through four phases (from NIH): Clinical trials test a new biomedical intervention in a small group of people (e.g., 20-80) for the first time to evaluate safety (e.g., to determine a safe dosage range and to identify side effects). Clinical trials study the biomedical or behavioral intervention in a larger group of people (several hundred) to determine efficacy and to further evaluate its safety. Studies investigate the efficacy of the biomedical or behavioral intervention in large groups of human subjects (from several hundred to several thousand) by comparing the intervention to other standard or experimental interventions as well as to monitor adverse effects, and to collect information that will allow the intervention to be used safely. Studies are conducted after the intervention has been marketed. These studies are designed to monitor effectiveness of the approved intervention in the general population and to collect information about any adverse effects associated with widespread use. Trial Registration Data Set: the minimum amount of trial information that must appear in a register in order for a given trial to be considered fully registered. Trial Results Database: a trial results database provides the results of completed studies, and should be accompanied by methodological details to place the results in context. The results may or may not have been peer reviewed. A results database may be separate from a trial register. Thus, a trial may be registered in one register and have its results reported in a different results database. Trial Site: the location(s) where trial-related activities are actually conducted. (from ICH E6). Trigone: triangle-shaped muscle that extends up from the urethra to the posterior bladder wall and to the urethral openings. The trigone is the most sensitive area of the bladder muscle because of its high concentration of nerves. Triplet Repeat Expansion: (see Hereditary Unstable DNA). Trinucleotide Repeat Analysis (Repeats): unstable DNA sequences found in several human genes. Normally the triplets are repeated in tandem 5-50 times. When the number rises above the normal range, mutant disease syndromes appear. Trisomy: possessing three copies of a particular chromosome instead of the normal two copies. See also — cell, gene, gene expression, chromosome. Trophectoderm: peripheral cells of the balstocyst that form the membrane sac surrounding the embryo. Tuberculosis Incidence: the number of new cases registered from tuberculosis in a specific year, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Tumor Angiogenesis Factor: represents the induction of the growth of blood vessels caused by this stimulant released by tumor cells. The growth of a tumor appears to parallel the development of new blood vessels. Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF): a family of cytokines produced by activated monocytes and lymphocytes that can induce hemorrhagic necrosis and regression of tumors. Tumor Suppressor Gene: a gene that suppresses cellular growth and proliferation. Therefore, when its protein products are absent, it contributes to tumor development or progression. Also known as antioncogenes, these normal cellular genes encode proteins that are thought to normally regulate growth in a negative fashion. Two-tail Test: a test to determine any difference between the variable; for example, if either drug A or drug B is superior to the other. It is usually considered that in a two-tail test more trust can be placed in the statistically significant results than with a one-tail test. When in doubt, the two-tail test is preferred.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Earmarked Taxes: taxes which are collected with the specific purpose of using them for health care. Economic Impact Assessment: economic impact assessment involves exploring and identifying the ways in which the economy in general, or local economic circumstances in particular, will be affected by a policy, program or project. Economics: the study of how individuals and societies choose to allocate scarce productive resources among competing alternative uses and to distribute the products from these uses among the members of the society. Economic Analysis/ Evaluation: analyses which involve the allocation of scarce resources among competing alternative uses and the distribution of the products from these uses among the members of the society. Economies of Scale, in contrast to Economies of Scope: the average cost per unit decreases as output increases. Economies of Scope, in contrast to Economies of Scale: benefits of producing multiple goods or services (i.e., if it is cheaper to produce both good X and good Y together rather than separately). Economic Outcome, see Health Outcome: a consequence of the use of health care products, services, or programs that affect costs from any of several perspectives. Ectopic Pregnancy: a pregnancy in which the fertilized egg implants outside of the uterus, and the placenta and fetus begin to develop there. The most common site is within a fallopian tube. Eczema: pruritic dermatitis that occurs as a reaction to a drug or some other skin contact. Characterized in the acute state by an erythema; edema associated with serious exudates between the cells of the epidermis; and an inflammatory infiltrate in the dermis, causing oozing, vesiculation, crusting, and scaling of the epidermis. Effectiveness: a measure of the extent to which a specific intervention, procedure, regimen, or service, when deployed in the field in routine circumstances, does what it is intended to do for a specified population. Whether services deliver the outcome(s) in the way that is claimed in actual practice; does it do more good than harm. Efficacy: the benefit of using a technology for a particular problem under ideal conditions, for example, in a laboratory setting, with in the protocol of a carefully managed randomized controlled trial, or at a “center of excellence.” Whether services deliver the outcome(s) in the way that is claimed in ideal conditions; can it work. Efficiency: the capacity to produce the maximum output for a given input. e-Health: it is the transfer of health resources and health care by electronic means. It encompasses three main areas: The delivery of health information, for health professionals and health consumers, through the Internet and telecommunications. Using the power of IT and e-commerce to improve public health services, e.g. through the education and training of health workers. The use of e-commerce and e-business practices in health systems management. Elasticity: the ratio of substitution between two factors such as quantity of goods demanded and its price to the consumer. Electrical Stimulation: application of electric current to stimulate or inhibit the pelvic floor muscles or their nerve supply in order to induce a direct therapeutic response. Electromyography (EMG): diagnostic test used to measure the electrical activity of muscles. Electron Volt (eV): the energy of motion acquired by an electron accelerated through a potential difference of 1 volt. Electrophoresis: a method of separating large molecules (such as DNA fragments or proteins) from a mixture of similar molecules. An electric current is passed through a medium containing the mixture, and each kind of molecule travels through the medium at a different rate, depending on its electrical charge and size. Agarose and acrylamide gels are the media commonly used for electrophoresis of proteins and nucleic acids. Electroporation: a process using high-voltage current to make cell membranes permeable to allow the introduction of new DNA; commonly used in recombinant DNA technology. See also — transfection. Embryonic Disc: the group of cells from which the embryo will develop, usually visible at the end of the first week of development after fertilization in humans. Embryonic Stem (ES) Cells: an embryonic cell that can replicate indefinitely, transform into other types of cells, and serve as a continuous source of new cells. Emergency Admission: a patient admitted on the same day that admission is requested. Employment Zone: 15 Employment Zones (EZs) were launched in March 2000 in areas experiencing high levels of long term unemployment in order to help long term unemployed people get and keep work. Employment Zones pool funds for training, Employment Service support and the equivalent of benefit to maximize flexibility and choice. The areas selected were amongst the worst 150 unitary authorities or local authority districts in Great Britain when ranked by a composite measure of the share of unemployed claimants aged 25+ who were long term unemployed, the employment rate and the number of people unemployed for over two years as a percentage of the working age population based on 1997 data. Participants in the EZ schemes work with a personal adviser to establish their needs and identify any barriers preventing them from moving into sustainable work. A costed action plan is then drawn up between adviser and participant. Once the participant has started work, they continue to be supported to ensure that their move into employment is sustained where possible. A range of different organizations were contracted through a tendering process to administer the zones and their performance is monitored and linked to the funding process (Department for Work and Pensions, 2002). Endonuclease: see — restriction enzyme. Enhancement Factor: see blocking factor. Enhancing Antibodies: antibodies that enhance the survival of a graft or of a tumor. Enterocele: prolapse or falling down of the intestines into the vagina. Entitlements: benefits in-kind or cash benefits to which beneficiaries are entitled by law with little regard to actual contributions or premiums, or income qualifications. Enuresis: involuntary loss of urine (urinary incontinence). Environmental Impact Assessment: environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a well developed discipline, both in terms of theory and practice, having been in operation for nearly 30 years in the United States (Glasson et al. 1994). Its origins lie in the US National Environmental Policy Acts of 1969. In the same way that HIA explores the effect of policies, programs and projects on health, EIA does the same in terms of environmental effects. In many countries, including those of the European Union, there is now a statutory requirement for EIA to be undertaken under certain circumstances. The rules vary from country to country but generally EIA should lead to proposals which are likely to have any significant adverse effects on the environment being abandoned or modified (Hendley et al., 1998). There are numerous definitions of EIA, including the following an assessment of the impact of a planned activity on the environment (UN Economic Commission for Europe, 1991 in Glasson et al, 1994) the process of evaluating the likely environmental consequences of a proposed major action significantly affecting the natural and man-made environment (Walthern 1988, cited in Wood 1995) a technique and a process by which information about the environmental effects of a project is collected, both by the developed and from other sources, and taken into account by the planning authority in forming their judgments about whether the development should go ahead (Department of the Environment, Welsh Office 1989) Enzyme: a protein that acts as a catalyst, speeding the rate at which a biochemical reaction proceeds but not altering the direction or nature of the reaction. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent (ELISA): the assay in which an enzyme is linked to an antibody and a colored substrate is used to measure the activity of bound enzyme and the amount of bound antibody. Epidemiology: the study of the incidence and distribution of disease. The study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study to control health problems. Epididymitis: inflammation of the epididymis; occasional complication of untreated urethral infection. Epigenetic: non-DNA/RNA related process that affects genotype and phenotype (ie, methalization). Episiotomy: surgical incision into the perineum between the vagina and anus to ease childbirth through the vagina. Epistasis: one gene interferes with or prevents the expression of another gene located at a different locus. Epithelialize: to become covered with epithelial tissue (to heal). Epitope: an alternative term for antigenic determinant. Equality: principle by which all persons or things under consideration are treated in the same way. Equality of Child Survival: a composite index based on the distribution of child survival across countries and intended to provide a summary measure of countries’ achievements in the distribution of health. Equity: principle of being fair to all, with reference to a defined and recognized set of values. Equity in Health: inequity — as opposed to inequality — has a moral and ethical dimension, resulting from avoidable and unjust differentials in health status. Equity in health implies that ideally everyone should have a fair opportunity to attain their full health potential and, more pragmatically, that no one should be disadvantaged from achieving this potential if it can be avoided. (WHO EURO, 1985) More succinctly, Equity is concerned with creating equal opportunities for health and with bringing health differentials down to the lowest possible level. (Whitehead, 1990). HIA is usually underpinned by an explicit value system and a focus on social justice in which equity plays a major role so that not only both health inequalities and inequities in health are explored and addressed wherever possible (Barnes and Scott-Samuel, 1999). Escherichia coli: common bacterium that has been studied intensively by geneticists because of its small genome size, normal lack of pathogenicity, and ease of growth in the laboratory. Essential Drugs: a policy initiative to ensure that a minimal number of effective drugs are available to treat priority health problems at a cost which can be afforded by the community. Estimated General Mortality Rate: the estimated total number of deaths in a population of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Estimated Incidence of Malignant Neoplasms of the Cervix Uteri, Adjusted: the ratio of the number of new cases from malignant neoplasms of the cervix uteri (ICD-9 code 179; ICD-10 code C53) estimated in a specific year among the female population, to the number of residents in that population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Estimated Incidence of Malignant Neoplasms of the Female Breast, Adjusted: the ratio of the number of new cases from malignant neoplasms of the female breast (ICD-9 code 174; ICD-10 code C50) estimated in a specific year among the female population, to the number of residents in that population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Estimated Incidence of Malignant Neoplasms of the Lung, Adjusted: the ratio of the number of new cases from malignant neoplasms of the lung (ICD-9 code 162; ICD-10 codes C33-C34; both including trachea and bronchus) estimated in a specific year among the population of a given sex, to the number of residents in that population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Estimated Incidence of Malignant Neoplasms of the Stomach, Adjusted: the ratio of the number of new cases from malignant neoplasms of the stomach (ICD-9 code 151; ICD-10 code C16) estimated in a specific year among a population of a given sex, to the number of residents in that population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Estimated Mortality Rate from Accidents, Excluding Transport Accidents: the estimated total number deaths from accidents, excluding transport accidents, in the total population of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 codes E850-E949 or to ICD-10 codes W00-X59. Estimated Mortality Rate from Cerebrovascular Diseases: the estimated total number deaths from cerebrovascular diseases in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 codes 430-438 or ICD-10 codes I60-I69. Estimated Mortality Rate from Communicable Diseases, Adjusted by Age: the estimated total number of deaths from communicable diseases in a population of a given sex divided by the corresponding total number of this population, after removing the effect of differences in the age distribution, expressed per 100,000 population for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are: ICD-9 Chapter I (codes 001-139) or ICD-10 Chapter I (A00-B99), plus acute respiratory infections (ICD-9 codes 460-466, 480-487; ICD-10 codes J00-J22) and meningitis (CIE-9 codes 320-322; ICD-10 codes G00-G03). Estimated Mortality Rate from Communicable Diseases: the estimated total number of deaths from communicable diseases in a population of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. The cause categories grouped under this heading are Chapter I, ICD9 (codes 001-139) and ICD10 Chapter I (A00-B99), plus acute respiratory infections (ICD9 codes 460-466, 480-487; ICD10 codes J00-J22) and meningitis (CIE9 codes 320-322; ICD10 codes G00-G03). Estimated Mortality Rate from Diseases of the Circulatory System, Age Adjusted: the estimated total number of deaths from diseases of the circulatory system in the total population or by a given sex, divided by the corresponding total number of this population, after removing the effect of differences in the age distribution, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 Chapter VIII (codes 390-459) and ICD-10 Chapter IX (codes I00-I99). Estimated Mortality Rate from Diseases of the Circulatory System: the estimated total number deaths from diseases of the circulatory system in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 Chapter VIII (codes 390-459) or ICD-10 Chapter IX (codes I00-I99). Estimated Mortality Rate from Cirrhosis and Other Chronic Liver Diseases: the estimated total number deaths from cirrhosis and other chronic liver diseases, in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under the ICD-9 code 571 or to ICD-10 codes K70, K73-K74, K76. Estimated Mortality Rate from Diabetes Mellitus: the estimated total number deaths from diabetes mellitus, in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under the ICD-9 code 250 or to ICD-10 codes E10-E14. Estimated Mortality Rate from External Causes: the estimated total number deaths from external causes in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under the ICD-9 supplementary classification of external causes of injuries and poisonings (codes E800-E999) or ICD-10 Chapter XX (codes V01-Y89). Estimated Mortality Rate from External Causes, Adjusted by Age: the estimated total number of deaths from external causes in the total population or of a given sex, divided by the total number of this population, after removing the effect of differences in the age distribution, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under the ICD-9 supplementary classification of external causes of injuries and poisonings (codes E800-E999) or ICD-10 Chapter XX (codes V01-Y89). Estimated Mortality Rate from Homicide: the estimated total number deaths from homicide and injury purposely inflicted, and injury due to legal intervention or war operations, in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 codes E960-E969, or to ICD-10 codes X85-Y09, Y87.1. Estimated Mortality Rate from Ischemic Heart Disease: the estimated total number of deaths from ischemic heart disease in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. The cause categories grouped under this heading are: ICD-9 codes 410-414 or ICD-10 codes I20-I25. Estimated Mortality Rate from Malignant Neoplasms: the estimated total number deaths from malignant neoplasms in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 codes 140-208 or ICD-10 codes C00-C97. Estimated Mortality Rate from Malignant Neoplasms, Adjusted by Age: the estimated total number of deaths from malignant neoplasms in the total population or of a given sex, divided by the total number of this population, after removing the effect of differences in the age distribution, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 codes 140-208 or ICD-10 codes C00-C97. Estimated mortality Rate from Malignant Neoplasms of the Breast, Female: the estimated total number deaths from malignant neoplasms of the female breast in a female population of a given age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under the ICD-9 code 174 or the ICD-10 code C50. Estimated Mortality Rate from Malignant Neoplasms of the Digestive Organs and Peritoneum: the estimated total number deaths from malignant neoplasms of the digestive organs and peritoneum in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 codes 150-159 or ICD-10 codes C15-C26. Estimated Mortality Rate from Malignant Neoplasms of the Lung, Trachea and Bronchi: the estimated total number deaths from malignant neoplasms of the lung, trachea, and bronchus in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under the ICD-9 code 162 or ICD-10 codes C33-C34. Estimated Mortality Rate from Malignant Neoplasms of the Uterus, Female: the estimated total number deaths from malignant neoplasms of the uterus in a female population of a given age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 codes 179-180, 182, or ICD-10 codes C53-C55. Estimated Mortality Rate from Neoplasms, Adjusted by Age: the estimated total number of deaths from neoplasms in the total population or of a given sex, divided by the total number of this population, after removing the effect of differences in the age distribution, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 Chapter II (codes 140-239) or ICD-10 Chapter II (codes C00-D48). Estimated Mortality Rate from Neoplasms, Total: the estimated total number deaths from neoplasms in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 Chapter II (codes 140-239) or ICD-10 Chapter II (codes C00-D48). Estimated Mortality Rate from Suicide and Purposely Self-Inflicted Injuries: the estimated total number deaths from suicide and purposely self-inflicted injuries, in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 codes E950-E959 or to ICD-10 codes X60-X84. Estimated Mortality Rate from Transport Accidents: the estimated total number deaths from transport accidents, in the total population or of a given sex and/or age, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Underlying causes of death grouped under this heading are those under ICD-9 codes E800-E848 or to ICD-10 codes V01-V99. Estimated Mortality Rate due to Tuberculosis: the estimated number of deaths in total or by sex from tuberculosis, divided by the total number of this population, expressed per 100.000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area (ICD-9 codes 010-018; ICD-10 codes A15-A19). Estrogen: hormone produced primarily by the ovaries. Estrogen is believed to play a major role in maintaining the strength and tone of the pelvic floor. Eugenics: the study of improving a species by artificial selection; usually refers to the selective breeding of humans. Eukaryote: cell or organism with membrane-bound, structurally discrete nucleus and other well-developed sub-cellular compartments. Eukaryotes include all organisms except viruses, bacteria, and blue-green algae. See also — prokaryote, chromosome. Evaluation: the process of collecting and analyzing information at regular intervals about the effectiveness and impact of the program. Evidence Base: the evidence base refers to a body of information, drawn from routine statistical analyses, published studies and “grey” literature, which tells us something about what is already known about factors affecting health. For example, in the field of housing and health there are a number of studies which demonstrate the links between damp and cold housing and respiratory disease and, increasingly, the links between high quality housing and quality of life (Thomson et al., 2001). Evidence-Based Health Care: evidence-based health care is the conscientious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients or the delivery of health services. Current best evidence is up-to-date information from relevant, valid research about the effects of different forms of health care, the potential for harm from exposure to particular agents, the accuracy of diagnostic tests, and the predictive power of prognostic factors. Evidence-Based Medicine: the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients. As much as possible, medical decisions should be based on quality evidence. The best evidence is a properly designed randomized controlled trial. Evolutionarily Conserved: see — conserved sequence. Excitation: the moving of an electron to a more distant orbit within the same action. Exon: a region of a gene made up to DNA sequences that will be transcribed into mRNA. The protein-coding DNA sequence of a gene. The region of DNA coding for a protein or a segment of a protein. See also — intron. Exogenous DNA: DNA originating outside an organism that has been introduced into the organism. Exonuclease: an enzyme that cleaves nucleotides sequentially from free ends of a linear nucleic acid substrate. Expansion: (see Hereditary Unstable DNA). Experience Rating: setting a group premium based on the actual losses experienced by that group during the prior year or years. Experimental Research Design: “true” experimental research designs allow researchers to test a hypothesis by introducing a manipulated change (independent variable) into a system (a group of subjects, hospital or community setting) and subsequently assess the impact of that change on a dependent variable — ideally, all other phenomena that might affect change in the dependent variable under study are eliminated through internal control mechanisms. One of the primary features of experimental design is the random assignment of subjects. Explanatory Data: data or information that explain “why” and/or “how”. Expressed Gene: see — gene expression. Expressed Sequence Tag (EST): a short strand of DNA that is a part of a cDNA molecule and can act as identifier of a gene. Used in locating and mapping genes. See also — cDNA, sequence tagged site. Expressivity: the degree to which a genotype is expressed in the phenotype (range of phenotypic features). Externality: the result of an activity that causes incidental benefits (desirable effects) or damages (costs, pollution) to others with no corresponding compensation provided or paid by those who generate the externality. External (Condom) Catheters: devices made from latex, rubber, polyvinyl, or silicone that is used for externally draining the bladder. They are secured on the shaft of the penis by some form of adhesive and connected to urine collecting bags by a tube. Also called penile sheaths. External Sphincter: band of muscle downstream from the internal sphincter that is responsible for maintaining urinary and fecal continence. External Validity: a study is externally valid or generalizable if it can produce unbiased inferences regarding a target population (beyond the subjects in the study). This aspect of validity is only meaningful with regard to a specified external target population. For example, the results of a study conducted using only white male subjects might or might not be generalizable to all human males (the target population consisting of all human males). It is not generalizable to females (the target population consisting of all people).Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     UEMS: European Union of Medical Specialists. Under-5 Mortality, Estimated: the quotient between the number of deaths in children under 5 year of age in a given year and the number of live births in that year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, expressed per 1,000 live births. Technical Note: Data correspond to mid-year estimated values, obtained by linear interpolation of the corresponding United Nations fertility medium-variant quinquennial population projections. Under-Registered Deaths: the difference between the number of estimated deaths, according to the corresponding period life tables, and the number of currently registered deaths, expressed as a percentage of the total estimated deaths at a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Under-The-Table Payments: informal, unofficial payments which are usually prohibited in order to obtain one’s wishes/ demands/ needs fulfilled in a timely manner/to a larger extent than by following the official rules and regulations. Unemployed Proportion of the Labor Force: the number of members of the total population or of a given sex of the economically active population, who are unemployed but are available to work and seeking employment. This includes members who have lost their jobs and those who have voluntarily left work, at a specific point in time, expressed as a percentage of the economically active population in total or by sex. An economically active individual is considered employed if he or she falls into one of the following categories: has in-currency or in-kind paid employment, is self-employed, works in a family business, or is not working temporarily for a particular reason. Technical Note: Unemployment rates represent mid-year estimated values, according to the International Labor Organization (ILO) estimates and definitions. The ILO definition of unemployment notwithstanding, reference periods, criteria for seeking work, and the treatment of people temporarily laid off and those seeking work for the first time vary across countries. Informal sector employment is difficult to quantify in the absence of regulation for registering and tracking informal activities. Uninformative: the term used to describe the situation when the two homologous chromosomes from an individual cannot be distinguished from one another at a given locus; homozygous is an alternative term. Uniparental Disomy: inheritance of two copies of part or all of a chromosome from one parent and no copy from the other parent. Uniparental Heterodisomy: inheritance of two homologous chromosomes from one parent. Uniparental Isodisomy: inheritance of two identical chromosomes from one parent. Unique Identifier (ID): a unique identifier is assigned by a register to each registered trial. This identifier is unique to a specific register. If a trial is registered on more than one register they may have more than one unique identifier. Unique Trial: a trial is considered a single, unique trial if it is conducted according to a single document (the protocol) that describes the objective(s), design, methodology, statistical considerations, and organization of a trial. Univariate Analysis: analyses may be Univariate or multivariate as they examine one or more variables at a time, respectively. Universal Health Insurance: a national plan providing health insurance or services to all citizens, or to all residents. Unplanned Pregnancy: a pregnancy that is not expected. Unsafe Abortion: a procedure for terminating unwanted pregnancy either by persons lacking the necessary skills or in an environment lacking the minimal medical standards or both. Unwanted Pregnancy: a pregnancy that for a variety of often overlapping reasons is unexpected and undesired. Reasons a pregnancy may be unwanted include, but are not limited to, social/cultural, environmental, economic, and/or health factors. Upper Genital Tract Infection: includes infection of endometrium, fallopian tubes, ovaries and surrounding tissues. Uracil: a nitrogenous base normally found in RNA but not DNA; uracil is capable of forming a base pair with adenine. See also — base pair, nucleotide. Ureters: two very thin muscular tubes about 8 or 9 inches long that transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Urethra: narrow tube through which urine flows from the bladder to the outside of the body; the opening of the urethra is at the end of the penis in men and just above the vaginal opening in women. Urethral Dilatation: procedure in which a metal rod, called a dilator, is passed through the urethra for purpose of opening a urethral stricture. Urethral Obstruction: blockage of the urethra causing difficulty with urination, usually caused by a stricture or, in men, by an enlarged prostate. Urethral Pressure Profilometry (UPP): test used to measure pressures in the urethra. Urethral Sphincter Mechanism: segment of the urethra that influences storage and emptying of urine in the bladder. It controls bladder voiding by relaxing, which opens the outlet from the bladder, allowing urine to flow from the bladder to the outside of the body. A deficiency of the urethral sphincter mechanism may allow leakage of urine in the absence of a detrusor contraction. Urethral Stricture: narrowing of the urethra. Urethrocele: prolapse or falling down of the urethra into the vaginal wall. Urge: sensation from the bladder producing the desire to void. Urge Incontinence: involuntary and accidental loss of urine when the person is aware of the need to get to the bathroom but is not able to hold the urine long enough to get there. Usually, it is accompanied by or immediately preceded by urgency. Urgency: strong, intense, and often sudden desire to void. Urgency, with or without urge incontinence, usually with frequency and nocturia, can be described as overactive bladder syndrome, urge syndrome, or urgency-frequency syndrome. Urinary Frequency: voiding more than eight times in a 24-hour period. Urinary Frequency Volume Chart: records the volumes voided as well as the time of each micturition, day and night, for at least 24 hours. Urinary Incontinence (UI): involuntary or accidental loss (leakage) of urine. Urinary Retention: inability to empty urine from the bladder, which can be caused by atonic bladder or obstruction of the urethra. Urinary System: Part of the body (kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra) that produces, stores, and eliminates urine. Urinary Tract: Passageway from the pelvis of the kidney to the urinary orifice through the ureters, bladder, and urethra. Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): infection in the urinary tract caused by the invasion of disease-causing micro-organisms that proceed to establish themselves, multiply, and produce various symptoms in their host. UTI in women is known as cystitis. In men, infection is usually associated with obstruction to the flow of urine, such as prostate gland enlargement. Urinate: to void or to pass urine. Urination: act of passing urine. Urine: waste products filtered from the blood and combined with excess water by the kidneys. Urine Culture: test to determine whether bacteria is present in the urine. The type of bacteria can be determined by the color and appearance of the colonies. The number of bacteria is determined by estimating the number of colonies per milliliter. Urodynamic Assessment: tests designed to duplicate as nearly as possible the symptoms of incontinence in the way that people actually experience them. These tests determine the anatomic and functional status of the urinary bladder and urethra. Uroflowmetry: urodynamic test that measures urine flow either visually, electronically, or with the use of a disposable flowmeter unit. Urosepsis: infection of the urinary tract that causes bacteria to enter the blood-stream, causing tissue destruction. User Charge: user charges are charges for goods or services that the user, or patient, is required to pay. Uterine Prolapse: uterus has dropped from its normal position, and the cervix is closer to or may protrude outside the vagina. Utilization: the number of health services used, often expressed per 1000 persons per month or year. UTRN (Universal Trial Reference Number): the UTRN is a number, obtained by the trial’s Sponsor, early in the history of the trial. The intention is that this number will then become part of the trial’s identity. Trial investigators will be encouraged to use the UTRN whenever they communicate information in relation to the trial, and specifically to document it in the trial protocol. The aim of the UTRN is to facilitate the unique identification of clinical trials submitted to the Central Repository and hence the Search Portal.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Fab (Fragment Antigen Binding): that segment of the IgG antibody molecule, derived by papain treatment and reduction, containing only one antibody reaction site. Under oxidizing conditions, Fab fragments recombine to form the divalent molecule F (ab’) 2 devoid of the Fc segment of the original molecule. Fair Financing: one of the three intrinsic goals of a health system whereby every member of society should pay the same share of their disposable income to cover their health costs. Fairness: the attitude of being just to all. Fairness of Financial Contribution: index used to measure the distribution of the households’ health financing contribution. Fc: fragment of antibody without antigen-binding sites, generated by cleavage by papain; the Fc fragments recombine the C-terminal domains of the immunoglobulin heavy chains. Fecal Impaction: large amount of hardened stool in the rectum that an individual is unable to pass. A fecal impaction may present as small amounts of watery and incontinent stool. Fecal Incontinence: accidental and involuntary loss of liquid or solid stool or gas from the anus. Feces: waste material from the intestines. Feces are composed of bacteria, undigested food, and material sloughed from the intestines. Fee-For-Service: payments to a provider for each act or service rendered. Fee Schedule: a list of approved fees for each service promulgated by an insurance company, government agency, or professional society. Female Reproductive Tract: includes vulva, vagina, uterine cavity and the fallopian tubes. Fertility Rate: indicator used in population studies to assess the average number of children women have in a given population. Fertilization: the process which renders gametes capable of further development; it begins with the sperm contacts the plasma membrane of the oocyte and ends with the formation of the zygote. Filial Generation (F1, F2): each generation of offspring in a breeding program, designated F1, F2, etc. Financing: function of a health system concerned with the mobilization, accumulation and allocation of money to cover the health needs of the people, individually and collectively, in the health system. Raising revenue to pay for a good or service. Financial Resource Allocation: any process by which financial resources flow from a third-party payer (e.g., government, insurer, etc.) through the health care organization to the individual clinical provider. Fingerprinting: in genetics, the identification of multiple specific alleles on a person’s DNA to produce a unique identifier for that person. See also — forensics. Finished DNA Sequence: high-quality, low error, gap-free DNA sequence of the human genome. Achieving this ultimate 2003 HGP goal requires additional sequencing to close gaps, reduce ambiguities, and allow for only a single error every 10,000 bases, the agreed-upon standard for HGP finished sequence. See also — sequencing, draft sequence. Fistula: abnormal passage or connection between a hollow body cavity or organ and the surface of the body. Fixed Budget: a budget that is not adjusted for changes in the volume of service. Flatulence: release of gas through the anus. Flexible Budget: a budget that is adjusted for changes in the volume of service. Flow Cytometry: analysis of biological material by detection of the light-absorbing or fluorescing properties of cells or sub-cellular fractions (i.e., chromosomes) passing in a narrow stream through a laser beam. An absorbance or fluorescence profile of the sample is produced. Automated sorting devices, used to fractionate samples, sort successive droplets of the analyzed stream into different fractions depending on the fluorescence emitted by each droplet. Flow Karyotyping: use of flow cytometry to analyze and separate chromosomes according to their DNA content. α-Fetoprotein: synthesized in the fetus by perivascular hepatic parenchymal cells. It is found in a high percentage of patients with hepatomas and endodermal sinus tumor of the ovary or testes. It is a serum protein present in concentrations up to 400 mg/dl in early fetal life, falling to <3 mg/dl in adults. Increased levels may be detected in the serum of adults with hepatoma (80% positive) and endodermal sinus tumor (60-80% positive) and may be used to observe progression of the disease. Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH): a procedure for detecting specific nucleic acid sequences in morphologically preserved chromosomes, cells, and tissue sections using fluorescent labeled oligonucleotide probes. A physical mapping approach that uses fluorescein tags to detect hybridization of probes with metaphase chromosomes and with the less-condensed somatic interphase chromatin. Focus Group Discussion: sometimes called a group interview, focus group discussions are small (usually 5-15 people) interactive interviews led by an impartial facilitator, usually with a focused agenda. Fora: plural of forum; meetings, conferences, etc. Forensics: the use of DNA for identification. Some examples of DNA use are to establish paternity in child support cases; establish the presence of a suspect at a crime scene, and identify accident victims. Forensic Examination: examination to look for evidence that can later be used in legal proceedings; should be done by specially trained professional. Formulary: a list of approved drugs for reimbursement, with all non-approved drugs paid at a lesser rate or not at all. Forssman Antigen: an interspecies-specific antigen present in erythrocytes of many species, including some micro-organisms, that is capable of inducing the formation of lysin for sheep erythrocytes in animals devoid of such antigen. Fracture-pan: specially-designed bedpan for individuals who are unfit to lift their hips to position themselves on the bedpan. A handle allows the caregiver to remove the pan gently, without turning or lifting the user. Frame-shift: a mutation caused by deletions or insertions that are not a multiple of three base pairs. Results in a change in the reading frame in which triplet codons are translated into protein. Fraternal Twin: siblings born at the same time as the result of fertilization of two ova by two sperm. They share the same genetic relationship to each other as any other siblings. See also — identical twin. Frequency Distribution: a statistical term that denotes number of occurrences for a particular variable. Freund Adjuvant: Complete: Freund emulsion of mineral oil, plant waxes, and killed tubercle bacilli used to combine with antigen to stimulate antibody production. Incomplete: Freund mixture without tubercle bacilli. Full Gene Sequence: the complete order of bases in a gene. This order determines which protein a gene will produce. Function: the special kind of activity proper to something, the mode of action by which it fulfills its purpose. Also in general application, esp. as contrasted with structure. Functional Genomics: the study of genes, their resulting proteins, and the role played by the proteins the body’s biochemical processes. Funding: providing health care organizations with the financial resources required to carry out a general range of health-related activities. Fundholding: a system of payment for medical care which has the following characteristics: financial resources for health care are allocated on a per capita basis; financial resources are held in a fund; and the general practitioner is usually the decision-maker for allocating the fundsRead More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Vaccination: injection or ingestion of an immunogenic antigen for the purpose of producing active immunity. Vaccine: a suspension of dead or living micro-organisms that is injected or ingested for the purpose of producing active immunity. Vagina: collapsible tube of smooth muscle with its opening located between the urethral orifice and the anal sphincter of women. Also known as the birth canal. Validity: the accuracy of research results based on the method(s) used to obtain them. Valsalva Maneuver: action of closing the airways and straining down on the abdominal muscles (such as when straining to have a bowel movement). Variable: any measurable entity that might constitute an aspect of a research study. Vector: a DNA vehicle that can be propagated in living cells (e.g., bacteria and yeast) into which foreign DNA can be inserted and propagated with the vector DNA. Examples of vectors include bacterial plasmids, cosmids, bacteriophages, and most recently, yeast artificial chromosomes. See — cloning vector. Vertical Transmission of Viruses: transmission from one generation to another. Can include transmission from one generation to the next through milk or through the placenta. Very Low Birth Weight: a birth weight of less than 1500 g. Virus: a non-cellular biological entity that can reproduce only within a host cell. Viruses consist of nucleic acid covered by protein; some animal viruses are also surrounded by membrane. Inside the infected cell, the virus uses the synthetic capability of the host to produce progeny virus. See also — cloning vector. Void: synonym for urination. Voiding or Bladder Diary (Record): record maintained by the patient or caregiver that is used to record the frequency, timing, amount of voiding, and/or other factors associated with the patient’s urinary incontinence. Also called an incontinence chart. Voiding Reflex: reflex in which the bladder indicates to the spinal cord that it is full of urine, and the spinal cord signals the bladder to contract and empty. Voluntary Health Insurance (VHI): Health insurance which is taken up and paid for at the discretion of individuals (whether directly or via their employers). Vulnerable Groups: while there is agreement that globalization has both positive and negative effects, it is less clear exactly how these negative effects exert their impact on people’s lives. Whether globalization is the cause of increased vulnerability or whether vulnerability is maintained by an inability to maximize the benefits of globalization is not clear. It is probable that both forces are at work. Thus vulnerable groups such as the elderly, the young, and the poor are already so marginalized that they cannot benefit from globalization, and are increasing in numbers as globalization increases the gap between rich and poor.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Gamete: mature male or female reproductive cell (sperm or ovum) with a haploid set of chromosomes (23 for humans). Mature reproductive cells, usually haploid in chromosome number (e.g., sperm or ovum). Gamma Rays: electromagnetic irradiation (originating inside the nucleus) emitted by excited nuclei. The gamma rays from an isotope will have one or several sharply defined energies. Gas: material that results from swallowed air or that is created when bacteria in the colon break down waste material. Gas that is released from the rectum is called flatulence. Gasping: occasional breaths with long pauses in between, not sufficient breathing. Gatekeeper: a primary care physician/general practitioner (or another provider) who is responsible for overseeing and coordinating all the medical needs of a patient. The gatekeeper must authorize any referral of the patient to a specialist or hospital. GC-rich Area: many DNA sequences carry long stretches of repeated G and C which often indicate a gene-rich region. Gel Electrophoresis: a molecular biology laboratory technique in which DNA, RNA, or proteins are separated according to molecular weight, charge, and special characteristics in an electric field applied to a gel. For example, because DNA is negatively charged, it migrates toward the positively charged electrode. See — electrophoresis. Gender: refers to the economic, social and cultural attributes and opportunities associated with being male or female in a particular point in time. Gender Equality: means equal treatment of women and men in laws and policies, and equal access to resources and services within families, communities and society at large. Gender Equity: means fairness and justice in the distribution of benefits and responsibilities between women and men. It often requires women-specific programs and policies to end existing inequalities. Gender Discrimination: refers to any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of socially constructed gender roles and norms which prevents a person from enjoying full human rights. Gene: a unit of heredity responsible for the inheritance of a specific trait that occupies a fixed chromosomal site and corresponds to a sequence of nucleotides along a DNA molecule. The fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity. A gene is an ordered sequence of nucleotides located in a particular position on a particular chromosome that encodes a specific functional product (i.e., a protein or RNA molecule). See also — gene expression. Gene Amplification: repeated copying of a piece of DNA; a characteristic of tumor cells. See also — gene, oncogene. Gene Chip Technology: development of cDNA microarrays from a large number of genes. Used to monitor and measure changes in gene expression for each gene represented on the chip. Gene Deletion: the deletion of part or all of a gene through removal of DNA sequences by any of several mechanisms. Gene Expression: the process by which a gene’s coded information is converted into the structures present and operating in the cell. Expressed genes include those that are transcribed into mRNA and then translated into protein and those that are transcribed into RNA but not translated into protein (e.g., transfer and ribosomal RNAs). Gene Family: group of closely related genes that make similar products. Gene Library: see — genomic library. Gene Mapping: determination of the relative positions of genes on a DNA molecule (chromosome or plasmid) and of the distance, in linkage units or physical units, between them. Gene Pool: all the variations of genes in a species. See also — allele, gene, polymorphism. Gene Prediction: predictions of possible genes made by a computer program based on how well a stretch of DNA sequence matches known gene sequences Gene Product: the biochemical material, either RNA or protein, resulting from expression of a gene. The amount of gene product is used to measure how active a gene is; abnormal amounts can be correlated with disease-causing alleles. Gene Rearrangement: the process by which part or all of a gene is moved from its normal location in the genome to another site within the genome. Gene Testing: see — genetic testing, genetic screening. Gene Therapy: an experimental procedure aimed at replacing, manipulating, or supplementing nonfunctional or misfunctioning genes with healthy genes. See also — gene, inherit, somatic cell gene therapy, germ line gene therapy. Gene Transfer: incorporation of new DNA into an organism’s cells, usually by a vector such as a modified virus. Used in gene therapy. See also — mutation, gene therapy, vector. General Estimated Mortality Rate, Adjusted by Age: the estimated total number of deaths in a population of a given sex, divided by the total number of that population after removing the effect of differences in the age distribution, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. General (Medical) Practitioner (GP): a general doctor, or family doctor, who is the first point of contact with the health services for all non-emergency cases. Generic Drugs: drugs which are identical in chemical composition to a brand name pharmaceutical preparation, but produced by competitors after the firm’s patent expire. Genetic Code: the sequence of nucleotides, coded in triplets (codons) along the mRNA, that determines the sequence of amino acids in protein synthesis. A gene’s DNA sequence can be used to predict the mRNA sequence, and the genetic code can in turn be used to predict the amino acid sequence. Genetic Counseling: provides patients and their families with education and information about genetic-related conditions and helps them make informed decisions. Genetic Discrimination: prejudice against those who have or are likely to develop an inherited disorder. Genetic Engineering: altering the genetic material of cells or organisms to enable them to make new substances or perform new functions. Genetic engineering technology: see — recombinant DNA technology. Genetic Illness: sickness, physical disability, or other disorder resulting from the inheritance of one or more deleterious alleles. Genetic Informatics: see — bioinformatics. Genetic Map: see — linkage map. Genetic Marker: a gene or other identifiable portion of DNA whose inheritance can be followed. See also — chromosome, DNA, gene, inherit. Genetic Material: see — genome. Genetic Mosaic: an organism in which different cells contain different genetic sequence. This can be the result of a mutation during development or fusion of embryos at an early developmental stage. Genetic Polymorphism: difference in DNA sequence among individuals, groups, or populations (e.g., genes for blue eyes versus brown eyes). Genetic Predisposition: susceptibility to a genetic disease. May or may not result in actual development of the disease. Genetic Screening: testing a group of people to identify individuals at high risk of having or passing on a specific genetic disorder. Genetic Testing: analyzing an individual’s genetic material to determine predisposition to a particular health condition or to confirm a diagnosis of genetic disease. Genetics: the study of inheritance patterns of specific traits. Genome: the entire complement of genetic material in a chromosome set. All the genetic material in the chromosomes of a particular organism; its size is generally given as its total number of base pairs. Genome Project: research and technology-development effort aimed at mapping and sequencing the genome of human beings and certain model organisms. See also — Human Genome Initiative. Genomic Imprinting: the existence of parent-of-origin differences in the expression of certain genes. Genomic Library: a collection of clones made from a set of randomly generated overlapping DNA fragments that represent the entire genome of an organism. See also — library, arrayed library. Genomic Sequence: see — DNA. Genomics: the study of genes and their function. Genotype: the genetic constitution of an organism, as distinguished from its physical appearance (its phenotype). Germ Cell: sperm and egg cells and their precursors. Germ cells are haploid and have only one set of chromosomes (23 in all), while all other cells have two copies (46 in all). Germ Line: the continuation of a set of genetic information from one generation to the next. See also — inherit. Germ Line Gene Therapy: an experimental process of inserting genes into germ cells or fertilized eggs to cause a genetic change that can be passed on to offspring. May be used to alleviate effects associated with a genetic disease. See also — genomics, somatic cell gene therapy. Germ Line Genetic Mutation: see — mutation. Germline Mosaicism: mosaicism that is confined to the gonad. Gerontopsychiatric: mental health care for older people. Global Budget: an aggregate cash sum, fixed in advance, intended to cover the total cost of a service, usually for one year ahead. Global Health: global health refers to the transnational impacts of globalization upon health determinants and health problems which are the beyond the control of individual nations. Goal: a general objective towards which to strive. Unlike objectives and targets, goals are not constrained by time or existing resources, nor are they necessarily attainable but are rather an ultimate desired state towards which actions and resources are directed. Good: term meaning tangible economic products that contribute to the satisfaction of demand. Governance: the exercise of political, economic and administrative authority in the management of a country’s affairs at all levels. It is a neutral concept comprising the complex mechanisms, processes, relationships and institutions through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their rights and obligations and mediate their differences. (UNDP) GP: general practitioner. Gray (Gy): the special name for the unit of absorbed dose and specific energy impacted; 1 Gy = 1 joule / kg = 100 rads. Gross Domestic Product (GDP), per capita, international $ (PPP-adjusted): the average per capita market value of the sum of gross values added of all resident institutional units engaged in production, for a given national economy, at a given period in time, usually a year, expressed in international dollars using purchasing power parity rates. The gross domestic product (GDP) at market prices is the sum of gross value added by all resident producers in the economy plus any taxes and minus any subsidies that are not included in the valuation of output. GDP measures the total output of goods and services for final use occurring within the domestic territory of a given country, regardless of the allocation to domestic and foreign claims; it provides an aggregate measure of production. The residency of an institutional unit is defined on the basis of economic interest in the territory for more than a year. An international dollar is defined as the currency unit that has the same purchasing power over GNP as the US dollar in the United States. Technical Note: GDP figures are those estimated by the World Bank from the corresponding ones in the United Nations’ Systems of National Accounts, expressed in domestic currency. GDP is calculated without making deductions for depreciation of fabricated assets or for depletion and degradation of natural resources. Purchasing power parity conversion factors are estimated by the World Bank based on data collected by the International Comparison Program (ICP), which is coordinated by the United Nations regional economic commissions and other international organizations. Per capita figures are based on the World Bank’s population estimates and projections. Gross Primary Enrollment Ratio: total number of pupils or of a given sex enrolled in primary education, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the corresponding population of the age group, which officially corresponds to primary schooling, at a specific period of time, usually a year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. According to the 1997 International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED-97), adopted by UNESCO, primary education is defined as the level of education which the main function is to provide the basic elements of education at such establishments as elementary schools, and primary schools. Technical Note: Gross enrollment ratios are based on the enrollment estimates made by UNESCO from national enrollment figures and population mid-year estimates from the corresponding United Nations fertility medium-variant quinquennial population projections. All ratios are expressed as percentages and may exceed 100 because of early entry, repetition, and, for countries with almost universal education at a given level, whenever the actual age distribution of pupils extends beyond the official school ages. Gross National Income (GNI), per capita, current US$ (Atlas Method): the Gross National Income, GNI, formerly referred to as gross national product (GNP), measures the total domestic and foreign value added claimed by residents, at a given period in time, usually a year, expressed in current US dollars using the World Bank Atlas method. GNI comprises GDP plus net receipts of primary income (compensation of employees and property income) from nonresident sources. Technical Note: GNI figures are those estimated by the World Bank from the corresponding ones in the United Nations’ Systems of National Accounts, expressed in domestic currency. The World Bank Atlas method of conversion is used to smooth fluctuations in prices and exchange rates in the cross-country comparison of national incomes. The conversion factor averages the exchange rate for a given year and the two preceding years, adjusted for the difference between the rate of inflation in the country and that in Japan, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Euro Zone. Gross National Income (GNI), per capita, international $ (PPP-adjusted): the Gross National Income, GNI, formerly referred to as gross national product (GNP) measures the total domestic and foreign value added claimed by residents at a given period in time, usually a year, expressed in international dollars using purchasing power parity rates. GNI comprises GDP plus net receipts of primary income (compensation of employees and property income) from nonresident sources. GNI provides an aggregate measure of income. An international dollar is defined as the currency unit that has the same purchasing power over GNI as the US dollar in the United States. Technical Note: GNI figures are those estimated by the World Bank from the corresponding ones in the United Nations’ systems of National Accounts, expressed in domestic currency. Purchasing power parity conversion factors are estimated by the World Bank based on data collected by the International Comparison Program (ICP), which is coordinated by the United Nations regional economic commissions and other international organizations. Per capita figures are based on the World Bank’s population estimates and projections. Group Interview: sometimes called a focus group discussion, group interviews are small (usually 5-15 people) interactive discussions led by an impartial facilitator, usually with a focused agenda. Growth Factor: protein that acts on cells to promote cell growth. Growth Factor Receptors: proteins that interact with growth factors and transmit the growth signal to the cell. Guanine (G): a nitrogenous base, one member of the base pair GC (guanine and cytosine) in DNA. See also — base pair, nucleotide. Guidelines: sets of steps which can be taken in performing a task or implementing a policy and the manner of so doing. Gyandromorph: organisms that have both male and female cells and therefore express both male and female characteristics.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Waiting List: the number of people awaiting admission to hospital as inpatients. Waiting Period: the period an insured or covered person has to wait before he or she qualifies for benefits. Waiting Time: the time which elapses between 1) the request by a general practitioner for an appointment and the attendance of the patient at the outpatients’ department, or 2) the date a patient’s name is put on an inpatients’ list and the date he is admitted. Washington Consensus: This is the set of 10 policies that the US government and the international financial institutions based in the US capital believed were necessary elements of “first stage policy reform” that all countries should adopt to increase economic growth. At its heart is an emphasis on the importance of macroeconomic stability and integration into the international economy – in other words a neo-liberal view of globalization. The framework included: Fiscal discipline – strict criteria for limiting budget deficits Public expenditure priorities – moving them away from subsidies and administration towards previously neglected fields with high economic returns Tax reform – broadening the tax base and cutting marginal tax rates Financial liberalization – interest rates should ideally be market-determined Exchange rates – should be managed to induce rapid growth in non-traditional exports Trade liberalization Increasing foreign direct investment (FDI) – by reducing barriers Privatization – state enterprises should be privatized Deregulation – abolition of regulations that impede the entry of new firms or restrict competition (except in the areas of safety, environment and finance) Secure intellectual property rights (IPR) – without excessive costs and available to the informal sector Reduced role for the state. These ideas proved very controversial, both inside and outside the Bretton Woods Institutions. However, they were implemented through conditionality under International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank guidance. They are now being replaced by a post-Washington consensus. Weighted Sample: a sample that is not strictly proportional to the distribution of classes in the total population. A weighted sample has been adjusted to include larger proportions of some other parts of the total population, because those parts accorded greater “weight” would otherwise not have the sufficient numbers in the sample to lead to generalizable conclusions. Well-Being Impact Assessment: well-being impact assessment is difficult to distinguish from HIA although it could be argued that, instead of looking at all aspects of health, including medical factors, it concentrates primarily on aspects of quality of life and physical and mental well being. Western Blot: a technique, conceptually related to the Southern and Northern blot that is used to detect specific proteins. A technique used to identify and locate proteins based on their ability to bind to specific antibodies. See also — DNA, Northern blot, protein, RNA, Southern blotting. WHO Network of Collaborating Clinical Trial Registers (The Register Network): the Register Network is a forum for registers to exchange information and work together to establish best practice for clinical trial registration. Wild Type: the form of an organism that occurs most frequently in nature. The term used to describe the normal gene or gene product. In contrast, a gene that has had its DNA sequence altered is referred to as a mutant gene, and its resultant product is a mutant protein. A gene that encodes a proto-oncogene, for example, is a wild-type gene because it is unaltered. Willingness To Pay: how far a person or group is prepared to pay for particular goods or services. Workers Compensation: a mandatory insurance program covering the costs of medical treatment and disability due to work-related accidents and illness. Working Draft DNA Sequence: see — Draft DNA Sequence. Working Group: in contrast to a steering group, a working group convened for the purpose of carrying out usually consists of those charged with carrying out the work on a day to day basis. Typically it might include people with a range of complementary public health skills such as project management, epidemiology, statistical analysis and presentation, questionnaire design and community development (Barnes and MacArthur, 2000). Workshops: workshops involve bringing together a group of people for a specific purpose. In HIA this might include, for example, identifying key stakeholders’ health concerns in relation to the policy, program or project being addressed, identifying sources of current knowledge in relation to the evidence base or training staff in HIA techniques. Workshops are usually structured in some way with a mixture of presentations and “hands on” participative work. WPA: World Psychiatric Association.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Habit Training: behavioral technique that calls for scheduled toileting at regular interval on a planned basis to prevent incontinence. Half-life: the time in which half the atoms of a radioactive species disintegrate. Haploid: the chromosome number of a normal gamete (sperm or ovum). In humans, the haploid number is 23, representing one member of each chromosome pair. A single set of chromosomes (half the full set of genetic material) present in the egg and sperm cells of animals and in the egg and pollen cells of plants. Human beings have 23 chromosomes in their reproductive cells. See also — diploid. Haplotype: a way of denoting the collective genotype of a number of closely linked loci on a chromosome. Hapten: a substance that combines specifically with antibody but does not initiate the formation of antibody unless attached to a high-molecular-weight carrier. Health: a state of complete physical, social and mental well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Health is a resource for everyday life, not the object of living. It is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources as well as physical capabilities. Health Benefit: in health economics, a health benefit is one which is recognized as providing a gain in terms of reduced costs or increased health. Health Care: any type of services provided by professionals or paraprofessionals with an impact on health status. Health Care Delivery: one of the functions of the health system, which deals with the medical and therapeutic measures, intended to preserve or improve the health condition of a patient. Health Care Institution: an institution where delivery care is provided by health workers with midwifery skills (health centre, maternity unit, hospital). Health Center: a facility that provides (ambulatory) medical and sanitary services to a specific group in a population. Health Care Providers: individuals who are trained to provide various health services. Health Economics: The study of how scarce resources are allocated among alternative uses for the care of sickness and the promotion, maintenance and improvement of health, including the study of how health care and health-related services, their costs and benefits, and health itself are distributed among individuals and groups in society. Health Education: the planned and managed process of investing in education to achieve improvement in health of a population. Health Expectancy: a population based measure of the proportion of expected life span estimated to be healthful and fulfilling, or free of illness, disease and disability according to social norms and perceptions and professional standards. Health For All Policy: the attainment by all people of the world of a level of health that will permit them to lead a socially and economically productive life. Health Gain: an increase in the measured health of an individual or population, including length and quality of life. Improvement in health status. Health Indicator: an indicator applicable to a health or health-related situation. A health indicator is a characteristic of an individual, population, or environment which is subject to measurement (directly or indirectly) and can be used to describe one or more aspects of the health of an individual or population (quality, quantity and time). Health Inequality and Inequity: health inequalities can be defined as differences in health status or in the distribution of health determinants between different population groups. For example, differences in mobility between elderly people and younger populations or differences in mortality rates between people from different social classes. It is important to distinguish between inequality in health and inequity. Some health inequalities are attributable to biological variations or free choice and others are attributable to the external environment and conditions mainly outside the control of the individuals concerned. In the first case it may be impossible or ethically or ideologically unacceptable to change the health determinants and so the health inequalities are unavoidable. In the second, the uneven distribution may be unnecessary and avoidable as well as unjust and unfair, so that the resulting health inequalities also lead to inequity in health. Health Insurance: a mechanism by which money is raised to pay for health services by financial contributions to a fund; the fund then purchases health services from providers for the benefit of those for whom contributions are made or who are otherwise covered by the scheme. Health Maintenance Organization (HMO): US health care sector term, an organization that contracts to provide comprehensive medical services (not patient reimbursement) for a specified fee each month. Health Outcome: changes in health status (mortality and morbidity) which result from the provision of health (or other) services. Health Plan: a broad term for all kinds of public or private schemes of health care coverage, including, for example, national health systems, sickness fund schemes, and private health insurance schemes. Health Policy: a formal statement or procedure within institutions (notably government) which defines priorities and the parameters for action in response to health needs, available resources and other political pressures. Health Promotion: the planned and managed process of encouraging and assisting improvement in the health of a population as distinct from the provision of health care services. Health Resources: the means available for the operation of health systems, including human resources, facilities, equipment and supplies, financial funds and knowledge. Health Sector: part of the economy dealing with health-related issues in society. Health Services: any service which can contribute to improved health or the diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation of sick people and not necessarily limited to medical or health-care services. Health Services Research: a field on inquiry that examines the impact of the organization, financing and management of health care services on the delivery, quality, cost, access to and outcomes of such services. Health Status: term for the state of health of an individual, group or population measured against defined standards/indicators. Health System: the people, institutions and resources, arranged together in accordance with established policies, to improve the health of the population they serve, while responding to people’s legitimate expectations and protecting them against the cost of ill-health through a variety of activities whose primary intent is to improve health. Set of elements and their relations in a complex whole, designed to serve the health needs of the population. Health systems fulfill three main functions: health care delivery, fair treatment to all, and meeting non health expectations of the population. These functions are performed in the pursuit of three goals: health, responsiveness and fair financing. Health System Goal: a general objective towards which the health system should strive. The World Health Report 2000 identifies three intrinsic goals of any health system: health, which is also the defining goal responsiveness fair financing. Health Target: health targets state, for a given population, the amount of change (using a health indicator) which could be reasonably expected within a defined period of time. Health Technology: the application of scientific knowledge to solving health problems. Health Technology Assessment: comprehensive evaluation and assessment of existing and emerging medical technologies including pharmaceuticals, procedures, services, devices and equipment in regard to their medical, economic, social and ethical effects. Health Workforce: medical and paramedical services delivered to patients at home. Healthy Public Policy: healthy public policy is a key component of the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion (1986). The concept includes policies designed specifically to promote health (for example banning cigarette advertising) and policies not dealing directly with health but acknowledged to have a health impact (for example transport, education, economics) (Lock, 2000). Helper Factor: sensitized T lymphocyte subpopulations release a helper factor that enables immunocompetent B cells to respond to antigens that they otherwise are unable to recognize. The stimulated B lymphocytes differentiate into plasma cells that produce antibody. The helper factor can also stimulate the B lymphocyte to produce a variant of the B cell, termed a killer cell (K cell) that is able to attack tumor cells only after the tumor cells have been exposed to specific antibody. Complement is not required for this action. See also killer cell. Hemagglutinin: an antibody that reacts with a surface antigen determinant on red cells to cause agglutination of those red cells. Hematuria: blood in urine, which may only be detected using a microscope. Hemizygous: having only one copy of a particular gene. For example, in humans, males are hemizygous for genes found on the Y chromosome. Hemolysin (Amboceptor): an anti-red cell antibody that can specifically activate complement (C’) to cause lysis of red cells. HER–2: see c-erb-b2 proto-oncogene. Hereditary Cancer: cancer that occurs due to the inheritance of an altered gene within a family. See also — sporadic cancer. Hereditary Unstable DNA (Triplet Repeat Expansion): gene containing a region of triplet codon repeats such as (CGC)n. The number of triplet repeats can increase during meiosis. If the expansion of repeats reaches a critical number, the gene becomes methylated and is turned off, resulting in phenotypic abnormalities. Hetero- : other or different; often used to mean “of a different species”. Heterochromatin: chromatin that remains condensed throughout interphase. It contains DNA that is genetically inactive and replicates late in the S phase of the cell cycle. There are two types of heterochromatin: constitutive and facultative. Heterogeneous: a term that refers to the amount or degree of difference in a group (e.g., of research subjects). Heteronuclear RNA: a form of RNA, a pre-mRNA, that exists before splicing and consists of both introns and exons. Heterophil: pertains to antigenic specificity shared between species. Heterophil Antigens: antigens common to more than one species. Heterozygosity: the presence of different alleles at one or more loci on homologous chromosomes. The presence in a chromosome of dissimilar genes. Two different forms of the same gene in a cell. An oncogene is generally heterozygous. For example, one allele may be mutated while the other copy remains normal. In addition, different forms of a gene may be normal variants. Variations in the exact base sequence within DNA are common in the genome among humans. These are called polymorphisms and are often responsible for the heterozygous state. Heterozygote: see — heterozygosity. Highest 20%/Lowest 20% income ratio: the quotient of the richest total income quintile divided by the poorest total income quintile in a given population, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, at a specific period in time, usually a year. Technical Note: Data are estimates based the percentage share of income or consumption. Highly Conserved Sequence: DNA sequence that is very similar across several different types of organisms. see also — gene, mutation. High-throughput Sequencing: a fast method of determining the order of bases in DNA. See also — sequencing. Histocompatibility Antigens (Transplantation or HLA Antigens): antigens coded for by histocompatibility genes that determine the specific compatibility of grafted tissues and organs. HIV: human immunodeficiency virus; the virus that causes AIDS. HIV Voluntary Counseling and Testing (VCT): counseling prior to HIV test, testing itself, and post-test counseling conducted when results of the test are given to the patient. HLA Antigens (Human Leukocyte Antigens): a genetic locus containing two closely linked groups of several alleles (a sublocus). They are present on the cell membranes of all nucleated cells and play a major role in determining graft take and rejection. Homeobox: a short stretch of nucleotides whose base sequence is virtually identical in all the genes that contain it. Homeoboxes have been found in many organisms from fruit flies to human beings. In the fruit fly, a homeobox appears to determine when particular groups of genes are expressed during development. Homogeneous: a term that refers to the amount or degree of similarity in a group (e.g., of research subjects). Homolog: a member of a chromosome pair in diploid organisms or a gene that has the same origin and functions in two or more species. Homologous: see allogeneic. Homologous Chromosome: chromosome containing the same linear gene sequences as another, each derived from one parent. Homologous Disease: see allogeneic disease. Homologous Recombination: swapping of DNA fragments between paired chromosomes. Homology: similarity in DNA or protein sequences between individuals of the same species or among different species. Homozygote: an organism that has two identical alleles of a gene. See also — heterozygote. Homozygous: see — homozygote. HoNOS: Health of the Nation Outcome Scales. Horizontal Transmission of Viruses: transmission of viruses between individual hosts of the same generation. See also vertical transmission of viruses. Hospital: residential establishment equipped with inpatient facilities for 24-hour medical and nursing care, diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation of the sick and injured, usually for both medical and surgical conditions, and staffed with at least one physician. The hospital may also provide outpatient services. Hospital Bed: a regularly maintained and staffed bed for the accommodation and full-time care of a succession of inpatients, situated in wards or areas of the hospital where continuous medical care is provided. It is a measure of hospital capacity. Hospital Beds Ratio: the number of hospital beds available per every 1,000 inhabitants in a population, at a given year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Hospital Discharges Ratio: the number of hospital discharges per every 1,000 inhabitants in a population, at a given year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. It represents an estimate of the degree of utilization of in-patient health care services. Hospital discharge is defined as the formal release of a hospitalized individual due to conclusion of the hospitalization stay, either by death, return home, or transfer to another institution. A hospital is defined as any medical facility with an organized medical and professional staff and beds available for continuous hospitalization of patients formally admitted to it for medical observation, care, diagnosis, or surgical and non-surgical treatment. Host: the organism whose body serves to sustain a graft; interchangeable with the recipient. Human Artificial Chromosome (HAC): a vector used to hold large DNA fragments. See also — chromosome, DNA. Human Capital: human skills and capabilities generated by investments in education and health. Human Gene Therapy: See — gene therapy. Human Genome Initiative: collective name for several projects begun in 1986 by DOE to create an ordered set of DNA segments from known chromosomal locations, develop new computational methods for analyzing genetic map and DNA sequence data, and develop new techniques and instruments for detecting and analyzing DNA. This DOE initiative is now known as the Human Genome Program. The joint national effort, led by DOE and NIH, is known as the Human Genome Project. Human Genome Project (HGP): formerly titled Human Genome Initiative. See also — Human Genome Initiative. Human Resources: people who work in the various professions of health care. Humoral Antibodies: antibodies present in body fluids. Humoral Immunity: pertains to the body fluids in contrast to cellular elements. It is initiated by the thymus-independent B cells. These B lymphocytes proliferate and differentiate into plasma cells that secrete immunoglobulins (IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE). Hybrid: the offspring of genetically different parents. See also — heterozygote. Hybridization (Dot Blot): a semiquantitative technique for evaluating the relative abundance of nucleic acid sequences in a mixture or the extent of similarity between homologous sequences. The process of joining two complementary strands of DNA or one each of DNA and RNA to form a double-stranded molecule. Hybridoma: a hybrid cell that results from the fusion of an antibody-creating cell with a malignant cell; the progeny secrete antibody without stimulation and proliferate continuously in vivo and in vitro. Hydronephrosis: dilation of the renal pelvis and calices and sometimes the collecting ducts. Hydronephrosis is secondary to obstruction of urine flow by calculi, tumors, neurologic disorders, or any various congenital anomalies. Hydrophilic-Coated Catheter: one-time use tube devices that are coated with a substance that absorbs water and binds it to the device’s surface. Hypoxemia: decreased oxygen content in blood. Hypoxia: decreased level of oxygen in tissue. Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy: also called post-asphyxial encephalopathy, hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy is a subtype of neonatal encephalopathy for which the etiology is considered to be limitation of oxygen and blood flow near the time of birth. Historically, it has been assumed that most cases of neonatal encephalopathy were hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, but epidemiologic studies have established that assumption is incorrect.Read More