A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     UEMS: European Union of Medical Specialists. Under-5 Mortality, Estimated: the quotient between the number of deaths in children under 5 year of age in a given year and the number of live births in that year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, expressed per 1,000 live births. Technical Note: Data correspond to mid-year estimated values, obtained by linear interpolation of the corresponding United Nations fertility medium-variant quinquennial population projections. Under-Registered Deaths: the difference between the number of estimated deaths, according to the corresponding period life tables, and the number of currently registered deaths, expressed as a percentage of the total estimated deaths at a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. Under-The-Table Payments: informal, unofficial payments which are usually prohibited in order to obtain one’s wishes/ demands/ needs fulfilled in a timely manner/to a larger extent than by following the official rules and regulations. Unemployed Proportion of the Labor Force: the number of members of the total population or of a given sex of the economically active population, who are unemployed but are available to work and seeking employment. This includes members who have lost their jobs and those who have voluntarily left work, at a specific point in time, expressed as a percentage of the economically active population in total or by sex. An economically active individual is considered employed if he or she falls into one of the following categories: has in-currency or in-kind paid employment, is self-employed, works in a family business, or is not working temporarily for a particular reason. Technical Note: Unemployment rates represent mid-year estimated values, according to the International Labor Organization (ILO) estimates and definitions. The ILO definition of unemployment notwithstanding, reference periods, criteria for seeking work, and the treatment of people temporarily laid off and those seeking work for the first time vary across countries. Informal sector employment is difficult to quantify in the absence of regulation for registering and tracking informal activities. Uninformative: the term used to describe the situation when the two homologous chromosomes from an individual cannot be distinguished from one another at a given locus; homozygous is an alternative term. Uniparental Disomy: inheritance of two copies of part or all of a chromosome from one parent and no copy from the other parent. Uniparental Heterodisomy: inheritance of two homologous chromosomes from one parent. Uniparental Isodisomy: inheritance of two identical chromosomes from one parent. Unique Identifier (ID): a unique identifier is assigned by a register to each registered trial. This identifier is unique to a specific register. If a trial is registered on more than one register they may have more than one unique identifier. Unique Trial: a trial is considered a single, unique trial if it is conducted according to a single document (the protocol) that describes the objective(s), design, methodology, statistical considerations, and organization of a trial. Univariate Analysis: analyses may be Univariate or multivariate as they examine one or more variables at a time, respectively. Universal Health Insurance: a national plan providing health insurance or services to all citizens, or to all residents. Unplanned Pregnancy: a pregnancy that is not expected. Unsafe Abortion: a procedure for terminating unwanted pregnancy either by persons lacking the necessary skills or in an environment lacking the minimal medical standards or both. Unwanted Pregnancy: a pregnancy that for a variety of often overlapping reasons is unexpected and undesired. Reasons a pregnancy may be unwanted include, but are not limited to, social/cultural, environmental, economic, and/or health factors. Upper Genital Tract Infection: includes infection of endometrium, fallopian tubes, ovaries and surrounding tissues. Uracil: a nitrogenous base normally found in RNA but not DNA; uracil is capable of forming a base pair with adenine. See also — base pair, nucleotide. Ureters: two very thin muscular tubes about 8 or 9 inches long that transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Urethra: narrow tube through which urine flows from the bladder to the outside of the body; the opening of the urethra is at the end of the penis in men and just above the vaginal opening in women. Urethral Dilatation: procedure in which a metal rod, called a dilator, is passed through the urethra for purpose of opening a urethral stricture. Urethral Obstruction: blockage of the urethra causing difficulty with urination, usually caused by a stricture or, in men, by an enlarged prostate. Urethral Pressure Profilometry (UPP): test used to measure pressures in the urethra. Urethral Sphincter Mechanism: segment of the urethra that influences storage and emptying of urine in the bladder. It controls bladder voiding by relaxing, which opens the outlet from the bladder, allowing urine to flow from the bladder to the outside of the body. A deficiency of the urethral sphincter mechanism may allow leakage of urine in the absence of a detrusor contraction. Urethral Stricture: narrowing of the urethra. Urethrocele: prolapse or falling down of the urethra into the vaginal wall. Urge: sensation from the bladder producing the desire to void. Urge Incontinence: involuntary and accidental loss of urine when the person is aware of the need to get to the bathroom but is not able to hold the urine long enough to get there. Usually, it is accompanied by or immediately preceded by urgency. Urgency: strong, intense, and often sudden desire to void. Urgency, with or without urge incontinence, usually with frequency and nocturia, can be described as overactive bladder syndrome, urge syndrome, or urgency-frequency syndrome. Urinary Frequency: voiding more than eight times in a 24-hour period. Urinary Frequency Volume Chart: records the volumes voided as well as the time of each micturition, day and night, for at least 24 hours. Urinary Incontinence (UI): involuntary or accidental loss (leakage) of urine. Urinary Retention: inability to empty urine from the bladder, which can be caused by atonic bladder or obstruction of the urethra. Urinary System: Part of the body (kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra) that produces, stores, and eliminates urine. Urinary Tract: Passageway from the pelvis of the kidney to the urinary orifice through the ureters, bladder, and urethra. Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): infection in the urinary tract caused by the invasion of disease-causing micro-organisms that proceed to establish themselves, multiply, and produce various symptoms in their host. UTI in women is known as cystitis. In men, infection is usually associated with obstruction to the flow of urine, such as prostate gland enlargement. Urinate: to void or to pass urine. Urination: act of passing urine. Urine: waste products filtered from the blood and combined with excess water by the kidneys. Urine Culture: test to determine whether bacteria is present in the urine. The type of bacteria can be determined by the color and appearance of the colonies. The number of bacteria is determined by estimating the number of colonies per milliliter. Urodynamic Assessment: tests designed to duplicate as nearly as possible the symptoms of incontinence in the way that people actually experience them. These tests determine the anatomic and functional status of the urinary bladder and urethra. Uroflowmetry: urodynamic test that measures urine flow either visually, electronically, or with the use of a disposable flowmeter unit. Urosepsis: infection of the urinary tract that causes bacteria to enter the blood-stream, causing tissue destruction. User Charge: user charges are charges for goods or services that the user, or patient, is required to pay. Uterine Prolapse: uterus has dropped from its normal position, and the cervix is closer to or may protrude outside the vagina. Utilization: the number of health services used, often expressed per 1000 persons per month or year. UTRN (Universal Trial Reference Number): the UTRN is a number, obtained by the trial’s Sponsor, early in the history of the trial. The intention is that this number will then become part of the trial’s identity. Trial investigators will be encouraged to use the UTRN whenever they communicate information in relation to the trial, and specifically to document it in the trial protocol. The aim of the UTRN is to facilitate the unique identification of clinical trials submitted to the Central Repository and hence the Search Portal.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Fab (Fragment Antigen Binding): that segment of the IgG antibody molecule, derived by papain treatment and reduction, containing only one antibody reaction site. Under oxidizing conditions, Fab fragments recombine to form the divalent molecule F (ab’) 2 devoid of the Fc segment of the original molecule. Fair Financing: one of the three intrinsic goals of a health system whereby every member of society should pay the same share of their disposable income to cover their health costs. Fairness: the attitude of being just to all. Fairness of Financial Contribution: index used to measure the distribution of the households’ health financing contribution. Fc: fragment of antibody without antigen-binding sites, generated by cleavage by papain; the Fc fragments recombine the C-terminal domains of the immunoglobulin heavy chains. Fecal Impaction: large amount of hardened stool in the rectum that an individual is unable to pass. A fecal impaction may present as small amounts of watery and incontinent stool. Fecal Incontinence: accidental and involuntary loss of liquid or solid stool or gas from the anus. Feces: waste material from the intestines. Feces are composed of bacteria, undigested food, and material sloughed from the intestines. Fee-For-Service: payments to a provider for each act or service rendered. Fee Schedule: a list of approved fees for each service promulgated by an insurance company, government agency, or professional society. Female Reproductive Tract: includes vulva, vagina, uterine cavity and the fallopian tubes. Fertility Rate: indicator used in population studies to assess the average number of children women have in a given population. Fertilization: the process which renders gametes capable of further development; it begins with the sperm contacts the plasma membrane of the oocyte and ends with the formation of the zygote. Filial Generation (F1, F2): each generation of offspring in a breeding program, designated F1, F2, etc. Financing: function of a health system concerned with the mobilization, accumulation and allocation of money to cover the health needs of the people, individually and collectively, in the health system. Raising revenue to pay for a good or service. Financial Resource Allocation: any process by which financial resources flow from a third-party payer (e.g., government, insurer, etc.) through the health care organization to the individual clinical provider. Fingerprinting: in genetics, the identification of multiple specific alleles on a person’s DNA to produce a unique identifier for that person. See also — forensics. Finished DNA Sequence: high-quality, low error, gap-free DNA sequence of the human genome. Achieving this ultimate 2003 HGP goal requires additional sequencing to close gaps, reduce ambiguities, and allow for only a single error every 10,000 bases, the agreed-upon standard for HGP finished sequence. See also — sequencing, draft sequence. Fistula: abnormal passage or connection between a hollow body cavity or organ and the surface of the body. Fixed Budget: a budget that is not adjusted for changes in the volume of service. Flatulence: release of gas through the anus. Flexible Budget: a budget that is adjusted for changes in the volume of service. Flow Cytometry: analysis of biological material by detection of the light-absorbing or fluorescing properties of cells or sub-cellular fractions (i.e., chromosomes) passing in a narrow stream through a laser beam. An absorbance or fluorescence profile of the sample is produced. Automated sorting devices, used to fractionate samples, sort successive droplets of the analyzed stream into different fractions depending on the fluorescence emitted by each droplet. Flow Karyotyping: use of flow cytometry to analyze and separate chromosomes according to their DNA content. α-Fetoprotein: synthesized in the fetus by perivascular hepatic parenchymal cells. It is found in a high percentage of patients with hepatomas and endodermal sinus tumor of the ovary or testes. It is a serum protein present in concentrations up to 400 mg/dl in early fetal life, falling to <3 mg/dl in adults. Increased levels may be detected in the serum of adults with hepatoma (80% positive) and endodermal sinus tumor (60-80% positive) and may be used to observe progression of the disease. Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH): a procedure for detecting specific nucleic acid sequences in morphologically preserved chromosomes, cells, and tissue sections using fluorescent labeled oligonucleotide probes. A physical mapping approach that uses fluorescein tags to detect hybridization of probes with metaphase chromosomes and with the less-condensed somatic interphase chromatin. Focus Group Discussion: sometimes called a group interview, focus group discussions are small (usually 5-15 people) interactive interviews led by an impartial facilitator, usually with a focused agenda. Fora: plural of forum; meetings, conferences, etc. Forensics: the use of DNA for identification. Some examples of DNA use are to establish paternity in child support cases; establish the presence of a suspect at a crime scene, and identify accident victims. Forensic Examination: examination to look for evidence that can later be used in legal proceedings; should be done by specially trained professional. Formulary: a list of approved drugs for reimbursement, with all non-approved drugs paid at a lesser rate or not at all. Forssman Antigen: an interspecies-specific antigen present in erythrocytes of many species, including some micro-organisms, that is capable of inducing the formation of lysin for sheep erythrocytes in animals devoid of such antigen. Fracture-pan: specially-designed bedpan for individuals who are unfit to lift their hips to position themselves on the bedpan. A handle allows the caregiver to remove the pan gently, without turning or lifting the user. Frame-shift: a mutation caused by deletions or insertions that are not a multiple of three base pairs. Results in a change in the reading frame in which triplet codons are translated into protein. Fraternal Twin: siblings born at the same time as the result of fertilization of two ova by two sperm. They share the same genetic relationship to each other as any other siblings. See also — identical twin. Frequency Distribution: a statistical term that denotes number of occurrences for a particular variable. Freund Adjuvant: Complete: Freund emulsion of mineral oil, plant waxes, and killed tubercle bacilli used to combine with antigen to stimulate antibody production. Incomplete: Freund mixture without tubercle bacilli. Full Gene Sequence: the complete order of bases in a gene. This order determines which protein a gene will produce. Function: the special kind of activity proper to something, the mode of action by which it fulfills its purpose. Also in general application, esp. as contrasted with structure. Functional Genomics: the study of genes, their resulting proteins, and the role played by the proteins the body’s biochemical processes. Funding: providing health care organizations with the financial resources required to carry out a general range of health-related activities. Fundholding: a system of payment for medical care which has the following characteristics: financial resources for health care are allocated on a per capita basis; financial resources are held in a fund; and the general practitioner is usually the decision-maker for allocating the fundsRead More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Vaccination: injection or ingestion of an immunogenic antigen for the purpose of producing active immunity. Vaccine: a suspension of dead or living micro-organisms that is injected or ingested for the purpose of producing active immunity. Vagina: collapsible tube of smooth muscle with its opening located between the urethral orifice and the anal sphincter of women. Also known as the birth canal. Validity: the accuracy of research results based on the method(s) used to obtain them. Valsalva Maneuver: action of closing the airways and straining down on the abdominal muscles (such as when straining to have a bowel movement). Variable: any measurable entity that might constitute an aspect of a research study. Vector: a DNA vehicle that can be propagated in living cells (e.g., bacteria and yeast) into which foreign DNA can be inserted and propagated with the vector DNA. Examples of vectors include bacterial plasmids, cosmids, bacteriophages, and most recently, yeast artificial chromosomes. See — cloning vector. Vertical Transmission of Viruses: transmission from one generation to another. Can include transmission from one generation to the next through milk or through the placenta. Very Low Birth Weight: a birth weight of less than 1500 g. Virus: a non-cellular biological entity that can reproduce only within a host cell. Viruses consist of nucleic acid covered by protein; some animal viruses are also surrounded by membrane. Inside the infected cell, the virus uses the synthetic capability of the host to produce progeny virus. See also — cloning vector. Void: synonym for urination. Voiding or Bladder Diary (Record): record maintained by the patient or caregiver that is used to record the frequency, timing, amount of voiding, and/or other factors associated with the patient’s urinary incontinence. Also called an incontinence chart. Voiding Reflex: reflex in which the bladder indicates to the spinal cord that it is full of urine, and the spinal cord signals the bladder to contract and empty. Voluntary Health Insurance (VHI): Health insurance which is taken up and paid for at the discretion of individuals (whether directly or via their employers). Vulnerable Groups: while there is agreement that globalization has both positive and negative effects, it is less clear exactly how these negative effects exert their impact on people’s lives. Whether globalization is the cause of increased vulnerability or whether vulnerability is maintained by an inability to maximize the benefits of globalization is not clear. It is probable that both forces are at work. Thus vulnerable groups such as the elderly, the young, and the poor are already so marginalized that they cannot benefit from globalization, and are increasing in numbers as globalization increases the gap between rich and poor.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Gamete: mature male or female reproductive cell (sperm or ovum) with a haploid set of chromosomes (23 for humans). Mature reproductive cells, usually haploid in chromosome number (e.g., sperm or ovum). Gamma Rays: electromagnetic irradiation (originating inside the nucleus) emitted by excited nuclei. The gamma rays from an isotope will have one or several sharply defined energies. Gas: material that results from swallowed air or that is created when bacteria in the colon break down waste material. Gas that is released from the rectum is called flatulence. Gasping: occasional breaths with long pauses in between, not sufficient breathing. Gatekeeper: a primary care physician/general practitioner (or another provider) who is responsible for overseeing and coordinating all the medical needs of a patient. The gatekeeper must authorize any referral of the patient to a specialist or hospital. GC-rich Area: many DNA sequences carry long stretches of repeated G and C which often indicate a gene-rich region. Gel Electrophoresis: a molecular biology laboratory technique in which DNA, RNA, or proteins are separated according to molecular weight, charge, and special characteristics in an electric field applied to a gel. For example, because DNA is negatively charged, it migrates toward the positively charged electrode. See — electrophoresis. Gender: refers to the economic, social and cultural attributes and opportunities associated with being male or female in a particular point in time. Gender Equality: means equal treatment of women and men in laws and policies, and equal access to resources and services within families, communities and society at large. Gender Equity: means fairness and justice in the distribution of benefits and responsibilities between women and men. It often requires women-specific programs and policies to end existing inequalities. Gender Discrimination: refers to any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of socially constructed gender roles and norms which prevents a person from enjoying full human rights. Gene: a unit of heredity responsible for the inheritance of a specific trait that occupies a fixed chromosomal site and corresponds to a sequence of nucleotides along a DNA molecule. The fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity. A gene is an ordered sequence of nucleotides located in a particular position on a particular chromosome that encodes a specific functional product (i.e., a protein or RNA molecule). See also — gene expression. Gene Amplification: repeated copying of a piece of DNA; a characteristic of tumor cells. See also — gene, oncogene. Gene Chip Technology: development of cDNA microarrays from a large number of genes. Used to monitor and measure changes in gene expression for each gene represented on the chip. Gene Deletion: the deletion of part or all of a gene through removal of DNA sequences by any of several mechanisms. Gene Expression: the process by which a gene’s coded information is converted into the structures present and operating in the cell. Expressed genes include those that are transcribed into mRNA and then translated into protein and those that are transcribed into RNA but not translated into protein (e.g., transfer and ribosomal RNAs). Gene Family: group of closely related genes that make similar products. Gene Library: see — genomic library. Gene Mapping: determination of the relative positions of genes on a DNA molecule (chromosome or plasmid) and of the distance, in linkage units or physical units, between them. Gene Pool: all the variations of genes in a species. See also — allele, gene, polymorphism. Gene Prediction: predictions of possible genes made by a computer program based on how well a stretch of DNA sequence matches known gene sequences Gene Product: the biochemical material, either RNA or protein, resulting from expression of a gene. The amount of gene product is used to measure how active a gene is; abnormal amounts can be correlated with disease-causing alleles. Gene Rearrangement: the process by which part or all of a gene is moved from its normal location in the genome to another site within the genome. Gene Testing: see — genetic testing, genetic screening. Gene Therapy: an experimental procedure aimed at replacing, manipulating, or supplementing nonfunctional or misfunctioning genes with healthy genes. See also — gene, inherit, somatic cell gene therapy, germ line gene therapy. Gene Transfer: incorporation of new DNA into an organism’s cells, usually by a vector such as a modified virus. Used in gene therapy. See also — mutation, gene therapy, vector. General Estimated Mortality Rate, Adjusted by Age: the estimated total number of deaths in a population of a given sex, divided by the total number of that population after removing the effect of differences in the age distribution, expressed per 100,000 population, for a given year, in a given country, territory, or geographic area. General (Medical) Practitioner (GP): a general doctor, or family doctor, who is the first point of contact with the health services for all non-emergency cases. Generic Drugs: drugs which are identical in chemical composition to a brand name pharmaceutical preparation, but produced by competitors after the firm’s patent expire. Genetic Code: the sequence of nucleotides, coded in triplets (codons) along the mRNA, that determines the sequence of amino acids in protein synthesis. A gene’s DNA sequence can be used to predict the mRNA sequence, and the genetic code can in turn be used to predict the amino acid sequence. Genetic Counseling: provides patients and their families with education and information about genetic-related conditions and helps them make informed decisions. Genetic Discrimination: prejudice against those who have or are likely to develop an inherited disorder. Genetic Engineering: altering the genetic material of cells or organisms to enable them to make new substances or perform new functions. Genetic engineering technology: see — recombinant DNA technology. Genetic Illness: sickness, physical disability, or other disorder resulting from the inheritance of one or more deleterious alleles. Genetic Informatics: see — bioinformatics. Genetic Map: see — linkage map. Genetic Marker: a gene or other identifiable portion of DNA whose inheritance can be followed. See also — chromosome, DNA, gene, inherit. Genetic Material: see — genome. Genetic Mosaic: an organism in which different cells contain different genetic sequence. This can be the result of a mutation during development or fusion of embryos at an early developmental stage. Genetic Polymorphism: difference in DNA sequence among individuals, groups, or populations (e.g., genes for blue eyes versus brown eyes). Genetic Predisposition: susceptibility to a genetic disease. May or may not result in actual development of the disease. Genetic Screening: testing a group of people to identify individuals at high risk of having or passing on a specific genetic disorder. Genetic Testing: analyzing an individual’s genetic material to determine predisposition to a particular health condition or to confirm a diagnosis of genetic disease. Genetics: the study of inheritance patterns of specific traits. Genome: the entire complement of genetic material in a chromosome set. All the genetic material in the chromosomes of a particular organism; its size is generally given as its total number of base pairs. Genome Project: research and technology-development effort aimed at mapping and sequencing the genome of human beings and certain model organisms. See also — Human Genome Initiative. Genomic Imprinting: the existence of parent-of-origin differences in the expression of certain genes. Genomic Library: a collection of clones made from a set of randomly generated overlapping DNA fragments that represent the entire genome of an organism. See also — library, arrayed library. Genomic Sequence: see — DNA. Genomics: the study of genes and their function. Genotype: the genetic constitution of an organism, as distinguished from its physical appearance (its phenotype). Germ Cell: sperm and egg cells and their precursors. Germ cells are haploid and have only one set of chromosomes (23 in all), while all other cells have two copies (46 in all). Germ Line: the continuation of a set of genetic information from one generation to the next. See also — inherit. Germ Line Gene Therapy: an experimental process of inserting genes into germ cells or fertilized eggs to cause a genetic change that can be passed on to offspring. May be used to alleviate effects associated with a genetic disease. See also — genomics, somatic cell gene therapy. Germ Line Genetic Mutation: see — mutation. Germline Mosaicism: mosaicism that is confined to the gonad. Gerontopsychiatric: mental health care for older people. Global Budget: an aggregate cash sum, fixed in advance, intended to cover the total cost of a service, usually for one year ahead. Global Health: global health refers to the transnational impacts of globalization upon health determinants and health problems which are the beyond the control of individual nations. Goal: a general objective towards which to strive. Unlike objectives and targets, goals are not constrained by time or existing resources, nor are they necessarily attainable but are rather an ultimate desired state towards which actions and resources are directed. Good: term meaning tangible economic products that contribute to the satisfaction of demand. Governance: the exercise of political, economic and administrative authority in the management of a country’s affairs at all levels. It is a neutral concept comprising the complex mechanisms, processes, relationships and institutions through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their rights and obligations and mediate their differences. (UNDP) GP: general practitioner. Gray (Gy): the special name for the unit of absorbed dose and specific energy impacted; 1 Gy = 1 joule / kg = 100 rads. Gross Domestic Product (GDP), per capita, international $ (PPP-adjusted): the average per capita market value of the sum of gross values added of all resident institutional units engaged in production, for a given national economy, at a given period in time, usually a year, expressed in international dollars using purchasing power parity rates. The gross domestic product (GDP) at market prices is the sum of gross value added by all resident producers in the economy plus any taxes and minus any subsidies that are not included in the valuation of output. GDP measures the total output of goods and services for final use occurring within the domestic territory of a given country, regardless of the allocation to domestic and foreign claims; it provides an aggregate measure of production. The residency of an institutional unit is defined on the basis of economic interest in the territory for more than a year. An international dollar is defined as the currency unit that has the same purchasing power over GNP as the US dollar in the United States. Technical Note: GDP figures are those estimated by the World Bank from the corresponding ones in the United Nations’ Systems of National Accounts, expressed in domestic currency. GDP is calculated without making deductions for depreciation of fabricated assets or for depletion and degradation of natural resources. Purchasing power parity conversion factors are estimated by the World Bank based on data collected by the International Comparison Program (ICP), which is coordinated by the United Nations regional economic commissions and other international organizations. Per capita figures are based on the World Bank’s population estimates and projections. Gross Primary Enrollment Ratio: total number of pupils or of a given sex enrolled in primary education, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the corresponding population of the age group, which officially corresponds to primary schooling, at a specific period of time, usually a year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. According to the 1997 International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED-97), adopted by UNESCO, primary education is defined as the level of education which the main function is to provide the basic elements of education at such establishments as elementary schools, and primary schools. Technical Note: Gross enrollment ratios are based on the enrollment estimates made by UNESCO from national enrollment figures and population mid-year estimates from the corresponding United Nations fertility medium-variant quinquennial population projections. All ratios are expressed as percentages and may exceed 100 because of early entry, repetition, and, for countries with almost universal education at a given level, whenever the actual age distribution of pupils extends beyond the official school ages. Gross National Income (GNI), per capita, current US$ (Atlas Method): the Gross National Income, GNI, formerly referred to as gross national product (GNP), measures the total domestic and foreign value added claimed by residents, at a given period in time, usually a year, expressed in current US dollars using the World Bank Atlas method. GNI comprises GDP plus net receipts of primary income (compensation of employees and property income) from nonresident sources. Technical Note: GNI figures are those estimated by the World Bank from the corresponding ones in the United Nations’ Systems of National Accounts, expressed in domestic currency. The World Bank Atlas method of conversion is used to smooth fluctuations in prices and exchange rates in the cross-country comparison of national incomes. The conversion factor averages the exchange rate for a given year and the two preceding years, adjusted for the difference between the rate of inflation in the country and that in Japan, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Euro Zone. Gross National Income (GNI), per capita, international $ (PPP-adjusted): the Gross National Income, GNI, formerly referred to as gross national product (GNP) measures the total domestic and foreign value added claimed by residents at a given period in time, usually a year, expressed in international dollars using purchasing power parity rates. GNI comprises GDP plus net receipts of primary income (compensation of employees and property income) from nonresident sources. GNI provides an aggregate measure of income. An international dollar is defined as the currency unit that has the same purchasing power over GNI as the US dollar in the United States. Technical Note: GNI figures are those estimated by the World Bank from the corresponding ones in the United Nations’ systems of National Accounts, expressed in domestic currency. Purchasing power parity conversion factors are estimated by the World Bank based on data collected by the International Comparison Program (ICP), which is coordinated by the United Nations regional economic commissions and other international organizations. Per capita figures are based on the World Bank’s population estimates and projections. Group Interview: sometimes called a focus group discussion, group interviews are small (usually 5-15 people) interactive discussions led by an impartial facilitator, usually with a focused agenda. Growth Factor: protein that acts on cells to promote cell growth. Growth Factor Receptors: proteins that interact with growth factors and transmit the growth signal to the cell. Guanine (G): a nitrogenous base, one member of the base pair GC (guanine and cytosine) in DNA. See also — base pair, nucleotide. Guidelines: sets of steps which can be taken in performing a task or implementing a policy and the manner of so doing. Gyandromorph: organisms that have both male and female cells and therefore express both male and female characteristics.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Waiting List: the number of people awaiting admission to hospital as inpatients. Waiting Period: the period an insured or covered person has to wait before he or she qualifies for benefits. Waiting Time: the time which elapses between 1) the request by a general practitioner for an appointment and the attendance of the patient at the outpatients’ department, or 2) the date a patient’s name is put on an inpatients’ list and the date he is admitted. Washington Consensus: This is the set of 10 policies that the US government and the international financial institutions based in the US capital believed were necessary elements of “first stage policy reform” that all countries should adopt to increase economic growth. At its heart is an emphasis on the importance of macroeconomic stability and integration into the international economy – in other words a neo-liberal view of globalization. The framework included: Fiscal discipline – strict criteria for limiting budget deficits Public expenditure priorities – moving them away from subsidies and administration towards previously neglected fields with high economic returns Tax reform – broadening the tax base and cutting marginal tax rates Financial liberalization – interest rates should ideally be market-determined Exchange rates – should be managed to induce rapid growth in non-traditional exports Trade liberalization Increasing foreign direct investment (FDI) – by reducing barriers Privatization – state enterprises should be privatized Deregulation – abolition of regulations that impede the entry of new firms or restrict competition (except in the areas of safety, environment and finance) Secure intellectual property rights (IPR) – without excessive costs and available to the informal sector Reduced role for the state. These ideas proved very controversial, both inside and outside the Bretton Woods Institutions. However, they were implemented through conditionality under International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank guidance. They are now being replaced by a post-Washington consensus. Weighted Sample: a sample that is not strictly proportional to the distribution of classes in the total population. A weighted sample has been adjusted to include larger proportions of some other parts of the total population, because those parts accorded greater “weight” would otherwise not have the sufficient numbers in the sample to lead to generalizable conclusions. Well-Being Impact Assessment: well-being impact assessment is difficult to distinguish from HIA although it could be argued that, instead of looking at all aspects of health, including medical factors, it concentrates primarily on aspects of quality of life and physical and mental well being. Western Blot: a technique, conceptually related to the Southern and Northern blot that is used to detect specific proteins. A technique used to identify and locate proteins based on their ability to bind to specific antibodies. See also — DNA, Northern blot, protein, RNA, Southern blotting. WHO Network of Collaborating Clinical Trial Registers (The Register Network): the Register Network is a forum for registers to exchange information and work together to establish best practice for clinical trial registration. Wild Type: the form of an organism that occurs most frequently in nature. The term used to describe the normal gene or gene product. In contrast, a gene that has had its DNA sequence altered is referred to as a mutant gene, and its resultant product is a mutant protein. A gene that encodes a proto-oncogene, for example, is a wild-type gene because it is unaltered. Willingness To Pay: how far a person or group is prepared to pay for particular goods or services. Workers Compensation: a mandatory insurance program covering the costs of medical treatment and disability due to work-related accidents and illness. Working Draft DNA Sequence: see — Draft DNA Sequence. Working Group: in contrast to a steering group, a working group convened for the purpose of carrying out usually consists of those charged with carrying out the work on a day to day basis. Typically it might include people with a range of complementary public health skills such as project management, epidemiology, statistical analysis and presentation, questionnaire design and community development (Barnes and MacArthur, 2000). Workshops: workshops involve bringing together a group of people for a specific purpose. In HIA this might include, for example, identifying key stakeholders’ health concerns in relation to the policy, program or project being addressed, identifying sources of current knowledge in relation to the evidence base or training staff in HIA techniques. Workshops are usually structured in some way with a mixture of presentations and “hands on” participative work. WPA: World Psychiatric Association.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Habit Training: behavioral technique that calls for scheduled toileting at regular interval on a planned basis to prevent incontinence. Half-life: the time in which half the atoms of a radioactive species disintegrate. Haploid: the chromosome number of a normal gamete (sperm or ovum). In humans, the haploid number is 23, representing one member of each chromosome pair. A single set of chromosomes (half the full set of genetic material) present in the egg and sperm cells of animals and in the egg and pollen cells of plants. Human beings have 23 chromosomes in their reproductive cells. See also — diploid. Haplotype: a way of denoting the collective genotype of a number of closely linked loci on a chromosome. Hapten: a substance that combines specifically with antibody but does not initiate the formation of antibody unless attached to a high-molecular-weight carrier. Health: a state of complete physical, social and mental well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Health is a resource for everyday life, not the object of living. It is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources as well as physical capabilities. Health Benefit: in health economics, a health benefit is one which is recognized as providing a gain in terms of reduced costs or increased health. Health Care: any type of services provided by professionals or paraprofessionals with an impact on health status. Health Care Delivery: one of the functions of the health system, which deals with the medical and therapeutic measures, intended to preserve or improve the health condition of a patient. Health Care Institution: an institution where delivery care is provided by health workers with midwifery skills (health centre, maternity unit, hospital). Health Center: a facility that provides (ambulatory) medical and sanitary services to a specific group in a population. Health Care Providers: individuals who are trained to provide various health services. Health Economics: The study of how scarce resources are allocated among alternative uses for the care of sickness and the promotion, maintenance and improvement of health, including the study of how health care and health-related services, their costs and benefits, and health itself are distributed among individuals and groups in society. Health Education: the planned and managed process of investing in education to achieve improvement in health of a population. Health Expectancy: a population based measure of the proportion of expected life span estimated to be healthful and fulfilling, or free of illness, disease and disability according to social norms and perceptions and professional standards. Health For All Policy: the attainment by all people of the world of a level of health that will permit them to lead a socially and economically productive life. Health Gain: an increase in the measured health of an individual or population, including length and quality of life. Improvement in health status. Health Indicator: an indicator applicable to a health or health-related situation. A health indicator is a characteristic of an individual, population, or environment which is subject to measurement (directly or indirectly) and can be used to describe one or more aspects of the health of an individual or population (quality, quantity and time). Health Inequality and Inequity: health inequalities can be defined as differences in health status or in the distribution of health determinants between different population groups. For example, differences in mobility between elderly people and younger populations or differences in mortality rates between people from different social classes. It is important to distinguish between inequality in health and inequity. Some health inequalities are attributable to biological variations or free choice and others are attributable to the external environment and conditions mainly outside the control of the individuals concerned. In the first case it may be impossible or ethically or ideologically unacceptable to change the health determinants and so the health inequalities are unavoidable. In the second, the uneven distribution may be unnecessary and avoidable as well as unjust and unfair, so that the resulting health inequalities also lead to inequity in health. Health Insurance: a mechanism by which money is raised to pay for health services by financial contributions to a fund; the fund then purchases health services from providers for the benefit of those for whom contributions are made or who are otherwise covered by the scheme. Health Maintenance Organization (HMO): US health care sector term, an organization that contracts to provide comprehensive medical services (not patient reimbursement) for a specified fee each month. Health Outcome: changes in health status (mortality and morbidity) which result from the provision of health (or other) services. Health Plan: a broad term for all kinds of public or private schemes of health care coverage, including, for example, national health systems, sickness fund schemes, and private health insurance schemes. Health Policy: a formal statement or procedure within institutions (notably government) which defines priorities and the parameters for action in response to health needs, available resources and other political pressures. Health Promotion: the planned and managed process of encouraging and assisting improvement in the health of a population as distinct from the provision of health care services. Health Resources: the means available for the operation of health systems, including human resources, facilities, equipment and supplies, financial funds and knowledge. Health Sector: part of the economy dealing with health-related issues in society. Health Services: any service which can contribute to improved health or the diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation of sick people and not necessarily limited to medical or health-care services. Health Services Research: a field on inquiry that examines the impact of the organization, financing and management of health care services on the delivery, quality, cost, access to and outcomes of such services. Health Status: term for the state of health of an individual, group or population measured against defined standards/indicators. Health System: the people, institutions and resources, arranged together in accordance with established policies, to improve the health of the population they serve, while responding to people’s legitimate expectations and protecting them against the cost of ill-health through a variety of activities whose primary intent is to improve health. Set of elements and their relations in a complex whole, designed to serve the health needs of the population. Health systems fulfill three main functions: health care delivery, fair treatment to all, and meeting non health expectations of the population. These functions are performed in the pursuit of three goals: health, responsiveness and fair financing. Health System Goal: a general objective towards which the health system should strive. The World Health Report 2000 identifies three intrinsic goals of any health system: health, which is also the defining goal responsiveness fair financing. Health Target: health targets state, for a given population, the amount of change (using a health indicator) which could be reasonably expected within a defined period of time. Health Technology: the application of scientific knowledge to solving health problems. Health Technology Assessment: comprehensive evaluation and assessment of existing and emerging medical technologies including pharmaceuticals, procedures, services, devices and equipment in regard to their medical, economic, social and ethical effects. Health Workforce: medical and paramedical services delivered to patients at home. Healthy Public Policy: healthy public policy is a key component of the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion (1986). The concept includes policies designed specifically to promote health (for example banning cigarette advertising) and policies not dealing directly with health but acknowledged to have a health impact (for example transport, education, economics) (Lock, 2000). Helper Factor: sensitized T lymphocyte subpopulations release a helper factor that enables immunocompetent B cells to respond to antigens that they otherwise are unable to recognize. The stimulated B lymphocytes differentiate into plasma cells that produce antibody. The helper factor can also stimulate the B lymphocyte to produce a variant of the B cell, termed a killer cell (K cell) that is able to attack tumor cells only after the tumor cells have been exposed to specific antibody. Complement is not required for this action. See also killer cell. Hemagglutinin: an antibody that reacts with a surface antigen determinant on red cells to cause agglutination of those red cells. Hematuria: blood in urine, which may only be detected using a microscope. Hemizygous: having only one copy of a particular gene. For example, in humans, males are hemizygous for genes found on the Y chromosome. Hemolysin (Amboceptor): an anti-red cell antibody that can specifically activate complement (C’) to cause lysis of red cells. HER–2: see c-erb-b2 proto-oncogene. Hereditary Cancer: cancer that occurs due to the inheritance of an altered gene within a family. See also — sporadic cancer. Hereditary Unstable DNA (Triplet Repeat Expansion): gene containing a region of triplet codon repeats such as (CGC)n. The number of triplet repeats can increase during meiosis. If the expansion of repeats reaches a critical number, the gene becomes methylated and is turned off, resulting in phenotypic abnormalities. Hetero- : other or different; often used to mean “of a different species”. Heterochromatin: chromatin that remains condensed throughout interphase. It contains DNA that is genetically inactive and replicates late in the S phase of the cell cycle. There are two types of heterochromatin: constitutive and facultative. Heterogeneous: a term that refers to the amount or degree of difference in a group (e.g., of research subjects). Heteronuclear RNA: a form of RNA, a pre-mRNA, that exists before splicing and consists of both introns and exons. Heterophil: pertains to antigenic specificity shared between species. Heterophil Antigens: antigens common to more than one species. Heterozygosity: the presence of different alleles at one or more loci on homologous chromosomes. The presence in a chromosome of dissimilar genes. Two different forms of the same gene in a cell. An oncogene is generally heterozygous. For example, one allele may be mutated while the other copy remains normal. In addition, different forms of a gene may be normal variants. Variations in the exact base sequence within DNA are common in the genome among humans. These are called polymorphisms and are often responsible for the heterozygous state. Heterozygote: see — heterozygosity. Highest 20%/Lowest 20% income ratio: the quotient of the richest total income quintile divided by the poorest total income quintile in a given population, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, at a specific period in time, usually a year. Technical Note: Data are estimates based the percentage share of income or consumption. Highly Conserved Sequence: DNA sequence that is very similar across several different types of organisms. see also — gene, mutation. High-throughput Sequencing: a fast method of determining the order of bases in DNA. See also — sequencing. Histocompatibility Antigens (Transplantation or HLA Antigens): antigens coded for by histocompatibility genes that determine the specific compatibility of grafted tissues and organs. HIV: human immunodeficiency virus; the virus that causes AIDS. HIV Voluntary Counseling and Testing (VCT): counseling prior to HIV test, testing itself, and post-test counseling conducted when results of the test are given to the patient. HLA Antigens (Human Leukocyte Antigens): a genetic locus containing two closely linked groups of several alleles (a sublocus). They are present on the cell membranes of all nucleated cells and play a major role in determining graft take and rejection. Homeobox: a short stretch of nucleotides whose base sequence is virtually identical in all the genes that contain it. Homeoboxes have been found in many organisms from fruit flies to human beings. In the fruit fly, a homeobox appears to determine when particular groups of genes are expressed during development. Homogeneous: a term that refers to the amount or degree of similarity in a group (e.g., of research subjects). Homolog: a member of a chromosome pair in diploid organisms or a gene that has the same origin and functions in two or more species. Homologous: see allogeneic. Homologous Chromosome: chromosome containing the same linear gene sequences as another, each derived from one parent. Homologous Disease: see allogeneic disease. Homologous Recombination: swapping of DNA fragments between paired chromosomes. Homology: similarity in DNA or protein sequences between individuals of the same species or among different species. Homozygote: an organism that has two identical alleles of a gene. See also — heterozygote. Homozygous: see — homozygote. HoNOS: Health of the Nation Outcome Scales. Horizontal Transmission of Viruses: transmission of viruses between individual hosts of the same generation. See also vertical transmission of viruses. Hospital: residential establishment equipped with inpatient facilities for 24-hour medical and nursing care, diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation of the sick and injured, usually for both medical and surgical conditions, and staffed with at least one physician. The hospital may also provide outpatient services. Hospital Bed: a regularly maintained and staffed bed for the accommodation and full-time care of a succession of inpatients, situated in wards or areas of the hospital where continuous medical care is provided. It is a measure of hospital capacity. Hospital Beds Ratio: the number of hospital beds available per every 1,000 inhabitants in a population, at a given year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Hospital Discharges Ratio: the number of hospital discharges per every 1,000 inhabitants in a population, at a given year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. It represents an estimate of the degree of utilization of in-patient health care services. Hospital discharge is defined as the formal release of a hospitalized individual due to conclusion of the hospitalization stay, either by death, return home, or transfer to another institution. A hospital is defined as any medical facility with an organized medical and professional staff and beds available for continuous hospitalization of patients formally admitted to it for medical observation, care, diagnosis, or surgical and non-surgical treatment. Host: the organism whose body serves to sustain a graft; interchangeable with the recipient. Human Artificial Chromosome (HAC): a vector used to hold large DNA fragments. See also — chromosome, DNA. Human Capital: human skills and capabilities generated by investments in education and health. Human Gene Therapy: See — gene therapy. Human Genome Initiative: collective name for several projects begun in 1986 by DOE to create an ordered set of DNA segments from known chromosomal locations, develop new computational methods for analyzing genetic map and DNA sequence data, and develop new techniques and instruments for detecting and analyzing DNA. This DOE initiative is now known as the Human Genome Program. The joint national effort, led by DOE and NIH, is known as the Human Genome Project. Human Genome Project (HGP): formerly titled Human Genome Initiative. See also — Human Genome Initiative. Human Resources: people who work in the various professions of health care. Humoral Antibodies: antibodies present in body fluids. Humoral Immunity: pertains to the body fluids in contrast to cellular elements. It is initiated by the thymus-independent B cells. These B lymphocytes proliferate and differentiate into plasma cells that secrete immunoglobulins (IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE). Hybrid: the offspring of genetically different parents. See also — heterozygote. Hybridization (Dot Blot): a semiquantitative technique for evaluating the relative abundance of nucleic acid sequences in a mixture or the extent of similarity between homologous sequences. The process of joining two complementary strands of DNA or one each of DNA and RNA to form a double-stranded molecule. Hybridoma: a hybrid cell that results from the fusion of an antibody-creating cell with a malignant cell; the progeny secrete antibody without stimulation and proliferate continuously in vivo and in vitro. Hydronephrosis: dilation of the renal pelvis and calices and sometimes the collecting ducts. Hydronephrosis is secondary to obstruction of urine flow by calculi, tumors, neurologic disorders, or any various congenital anomalies. Hydrophilic-Coated Catheter: one-time use tube devices that are coated with a substance that absorbs water and binds it to the device’s surface. Hypoxemia: decreased oxygen content in blood. Hypoxia: decreased level of oxygen in tissue. Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy: also called post-asphyxial encephalopathy, hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy is a subtype of neonatal encephalopathy for which the etiology is considered to be limitation of oxygen and blood flow near the time of birth. Historically, it has been assumed that most cases of neonatal encephalopathy were hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, but epidemiologic studies have established that assumption is incorrect.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     X Chromosome: one of the two sex chromosomes, X and Y. See also Y chromosome, sex chromosome. Xenogeneic (Heterologous): pertaining to individuals of different species. Xenograft (Heterograft): tissue or organs from an individual of one species transplanted into or grafted onto an organism of another species, genus, or family. A common example is the use of pig heart valves in humans. A graft derived from an animal of a species different from the one receiving the graft. X-inactivation: a process by which one of the X chromosomes in each somatic cell of females is rendered inactive. This results in a balance in gene expression between in X chromosomal and autosomal genes, which is necessary because males have only one X chromosome. X-linked: an allele for a trait or disorder that is located on the X chromosome. May be either dominant or recessive. X-rays: rays emitted by a particular generator will emit a spectrum of energies.      Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Identical Twin: twins produced by the division of a single zygote; both have identical genotypes. See also — fraternal twin. Idiotypes: The unique and characteristic parts of an antibody’s variable region, which can themselves, serve as antigens. Immune: the state of being secure against harmful agents (e.g., bacteria, virus, or other foreign proteins) or influences. Immune Clearance: clearance of antigen from the circulation after complexing with antibodies. Immunotherapy: using the immune system to treat disease, for example, in the development of vaccines. May also refer to the therapy of diseases caused by the immune system. See also — cancer. Immune Response: a specific response that results in immunity. The total response includes an afferent phase during which responsive cells are “primed” by antigen, a central response during which antibodies or sensitized lymphoid cells are formed, and an efferent or effector response during which immunity is effected by antibodies or immune cells. Immunity: the state of being able to resist or overcome harmful agents or influences. Active: Immunity acquired as the result of experience with an organism or other foreign substance. Passive: Immunity resulting from acquisition of antibody or sensitized lymphoid cells. Immunize: the act or process of rendering an individual resistant or immune to a harmful agent. Immunocompetent Cell (Antigen-sensitive Cell): any cell that can be stimulated by antigen to form antibodies or give rise to sensitized lymphoid cells, including inducible cells, primed cells, and memory cells. Immunoconjugate: a monoclonal antibody linked to a chemotherapy agent, radioisotope, or natural toxin to increase ability to kill target cells. Immunogen: an antigen that incites specific immunity. Immunoglobulins: classes of globulins to which all antibodies belong. Immunologic Enhancement: enhanced survival of incompatible tissue grafts (tumor or normal tissue) caused by specific humoral or other blocking factors. Immunologic Paralysis: absence of normal specific immunologic response to an antigen, resulting from previous contact with the same antigen, administered in a quantity greatly exceeding that required to elicit an immunologic response. The normal capacity to respond to other unrelated antigens is retained. Immunologic Surveillance: effective immunologic surveillance relies on the presence of tumor-specific antigenic determinants on the surfaces of neoplastic cells, which enable these altered cells to be recognized as non-self and to be destroyed by immunologic reactions. Immunologic Tolerance: (antigenic paralysis, immunologic suppression, immunologic unresponsiveness, antigen tolerance) failure of the antibody response to a potential antigen after exposure to that antigen. Tolerance commonly results from prior exposure to antigens. Immunoreaction: reaction between antigen and its antibody. Immunotoxin: a monoclonal antibody linked to a natural toxin. Impact: the total, direct and indirect, effects of a program, service or institution on a health status and overall health and socio-economic development. Impact Assessment: impact assessment is about judging the effect that a policy or activity will have on people or places. It has been defined as the “prediction or estimation of the consequences of a current or proposed action” (Vanclay and Bronstein, 1995) Impartial: not favoring a particular belief or point of view; unbiased. Implantation: attachment of the balstocyst to the endometrial lining of the uterus and subsequent embedding in the endometrium. Implantation begins at about 5-7 days after fertilization and may be complete as early as 8-9 days after fertilization. Implementation: the carrying out of a project or program. Imprinting: the imposition of a stable behavior pattern in a young animal by exposure, during a particular period in its development, to one of a restricted set of stimuli. Imprinting (Genetics): a phenomenon in which the disease phenotype depends on which parent passed on the disease gene. For instance, both Prader-Willi and Angelman syndromes are inherited when the same part of chromosome 15 is missing. When the father’s complement of 15 is missing, the child has Prader-Willi, but when the mother’s complement of 15 is missing, the child has Angelman syndrome. Incentives: systems which reward and therefore tend to encourage certain types of activity. Incidence: occurrence, or the rate of occurrence. The number of instances of illness commencing or of persons falling ill, during a given period in a specified population. More generally, the number of new events, e.g., new cases of a disease in a defined population, within a specified period of time. The term incidence is sometimes used to denote INCIDENCE RATE. Incidence Rate: measures the new cases of a specific disease that develop during a defined period of time and the approximation of the risk for developing the disease. The incidence rate focuses on events. Incidence measures the probability of developing a disease. Incidence of Bacilloscopically Positive (BK+) Tuberculosis: the number of new cases of bacilloscopically confirmed tuberculosis, in a specific year, expressed per 100.000 population, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Incidence of Oral Cavity Cancer: incidence of oral cavity cancer (ICD-10: C00-C08). Age-standardized rate (ASR) per 100,000 world standard population. Incidence Rate: the number of new cases of a disease in a defined population over a specified period of time. Incontinence: accidental or involuntary loss of urine or feces (stool). A person may have urinary or fecal incontinence or both (sometimes called double incontinence). Independent Variable: the independent variable is used to explain the dependent variable. Index Admission: the first admission for the subject in the study period. Index Patient: the original patient diagnosed for a particular infection. Indicator: a variable with characteristics of quality, quantity and time used to measure, directly or indirectly, changes in a situation and to appreciate the progress made in addressing it. It also provides a basis for developing adequate plans for improvement. Variable susceptible of direct measurement that is assumed to be associated with a state that cannot be measured directly. Indicators are sometimes standardized by national or international authorities. Variable that helps to measure changes in a health situation directly or indirectly and to assess the extent to which the objectives and targets of a program are being attained. Markers for assessing and/or understanding a particular (social, economic, political, medical, etc.) phenomenon. Indirect Methods: methods or questions that obscure the data collector’s true intentions. Induced Abortion: intentional termination of pregnancy prior to fetus reaching the state of viability by mechanical (surgical) means or by drugs. Provoked termination of pregnancy. Indwelling Catheters: tube device inserted into the bladder to drain the urine continuously. Sometimes called a Foley catheter. Indwelling Urethral Catheterization: process of inserting a tube device into the bladder through the urethra to drain urine continuously. Inequalities Audit / Equity Audit: a review of inequalities within an area or of the coverage of inequalities issues in a policy, program or project, usually with recommendations as to how they can be addressed. Inequality in Health: differences in health across individuals in the population. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): the quotient between the number of deaths in children under 1 year of age in a given year and the number of live births in that year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, expressed per 1,000 live births, as reported from the national health authority. The reported neonatal mortality rate is defined as the quotient between the number of children born alive that died before the age of 28 days in a given year and the number of live births in that year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, expressed per 1,000 live births, as reported from the national health authority. The reported post-neonatal mortality rate is defined as the quotient between the number of children that were alive after 27 days of age and died before the age of 1 year in a given year and the number of live births in that year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, expressed per 1,000 live births, as reported from the national health authority. The estimated infant mortality rate is the quotient between the number of deaths in children under 1 year of age in a given year and the number of live births in that year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, expressed per 1,000 live births, as estimated by the United Nations’ Population Division. Infertility: inability to conceive; usually assumed to exist if pregnancy is not achieved after 12 months of regular sexual intercourse, without the use of any form of birth control. Infestation: development of a pathogenic agent on the body, e.g., body lice. Inflation: Consumer Prices Index’s Annual Growth Rate: the annual average rate of change in the cost, to the average consumer, of acquiring a defined basket of goods and services that may be fixed or changed at specific intervals, for a given national economy, during a one year period. Technical Note: Consumer price index is usually derived explicitly as the weighted arithmetic mean of the current prices of goods and services from the fixed basket, obtained through recurring price surveys, based on their fixed value-based weights for the base period (Laspeyres formula), which are also obtained from household expenditure surveys. Consumer price index growth rates are those estimated by the World Bank from the corresponding data in the United Nations’s Systems of National Accounts using the least-squares method. Informants: persons with special knowledge or insights based on experience, training, or social position. Information Asymmetry: the difference in the amount of information available to the various parties to a transaction which does not place them on equal footing to strike a deal. Informative: a term used to describe the situation when the two homologous chromosomes from an individual can be distinguished from one another at a given locus; heterozygous is an alternative term. Informed Consent: the ethical practice of providing sufficient information for potential research subjects to make informed decisions about their participation in a research study; informed consent involves the presentation to the subjects of a statement of all the risks and benefits of participation. Inner Cell Mass: the centrally located cells within the balstocyst; these cells will develop into the embryo. Inpatient: a patient who is formally admitted (or “hospitalized”) to an institution for treatment and/or care and stays for a minimum of one night in the hospital or other institution providing inpatient care. Input: a quantified amount of a resource put in a process. Insertion: a mutation caused by the presence of an additional sequence of nucleotide pairs in DNA. The addition of a DNA sequence into the genome. In-Situ Hybridization: use of a DNA or RNA probe to detect the presence of the complementary DNA sequence in cloned bacterial or cultured eukaryotic cells. Institution: an organization or association, established for the promotion of some object, especially one of public or general utility. Instrumental Goal: a goal whose pursuit is really a means to another end. Integrated Impact Assessment: integrated impact assessment brings together components of environmental, health, social and other forms of impact assessment in an attempt to incorporate an exploration of all the different ways in which policies, programs or projects may affect the physical, social and economic environment. Integrated Model: compulsory or voluntary health insurance or third-party funding in which both the insurance and provision of health care is supplied by the same organization in a vertically integrated system. Integrated Pollution Prevention Control Regulations: in October 1996 the European Commission published a Directive on Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) which came into effect on 30 October 1999. As a result, European Union Member States were required to introduce a regulatory system to ensure that particular industries take action to ensure “an integrated approach to pollution control” in order to achieve “a high level of protection for the environment as a whole” when considering both routine and accidental releases. The definition of pollution in the Directive includes releases to air, land or water “which may be harmful to human health”. In the UK, Pollution Prevention and Control regulations were introduced in 2000 and they require that health authorities are consulted on IPPC. Three are around 7,000 sites affected across the country and the types of activity which are covered by the regulations include the energy, metals, oil, chemical and waste management industries, paper production, food production and some intensive livestock rearing (University of Birmingham, 2002). Integrated Services: availability of multiple health services—for instance, family planning and STI treatment—through a single facility or at a single visit. Integration: incorporation of other services into already existing services. Intellectual Property Rights (IPR): these are exclusive rights, often temporary, granted by the state for the exploitation of intellectual creations. Intellectual property rights fall into two categories: rights relating to industrial property (invention patents, industrial designs and models, trademarks and geographical indications) and those relating to literary and artistic property (copyright). The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) covers the main categories of intellectual property law. Interferon: a family of proteins released by cells in response to a virus infection. These substances represent non-specific immunity and appear to have non-specific tumoricidal characteristics. Interleukin–1: a macrophage-derived cytokine that is necessary for the initial step in activation of specific T cells and the process of in vivo production of effector T cells. Interleukin–2: a lymphokine with multiple in vitro and in vivo effects. It is an essential factor for the growth of T cells; it augments various T cell functions; it supports the preservation and augmentation of NK cell function; and it is critical for the generation of LAK cells. Interleukins: polypeptides secreted by lymphocytes, monocytes, or other accessory cells that function in the regulation of the hematopoietic or immune system; these molecules have an important role in cell-to-cell communication. Intermediate HIA Monitoring and Evaluation: an intermediate HIA may combine a workshop with key stakeholders followed by desk based work to build up a more detailed picture of the potential health impacts than those which would be identified during a rapid or “mini” HIA. It may involve a limited literature search, usually non-systematic, and is mostly reliant on routine, readily available data (Parry and Stevens, 2001). Intermittent Catheterization: the use of catheters inserted through the urethra into the bladder every 3-6 hours for bladder drainage in persons with urinary retention. Intermittent catheterization performed by the patient at home is called clean intermittent catheterization (CIC). Internal Validity: the index and comparison groups are selected and compared in such a manner that the observed differences between them on the dependent variables under study may, apart from sampling error, be attributed only to the hypothesized effect under investigation. Intersectoral Action: action in which the health sector and other relevant sectors of the economy collaborate, or interact to pursue health goals. International Law: This is the body of rules that are binding on states and other subjects of international law, in particular international organizations, in their relations with each other. Closely related to the concept of sovereignty of states, the norms of international law are binding because states consent that they should be. The expression of this consent appears from the actual practice of states in the case of customary international law and from ratifications in the case of treaties, to which the concept of pacta sunt servanda applies. This asserts that treaties are binding on the parties to them and must be executed in good faith. To the extent that the rules of international law influence the behavior of states in world politics, they are a “social reality”, thus constituting an institution of “international society”, or proof of the existence of an international community. Intervention: an activity or set of activities aimed at modifying a process, course of action or sequence of events, in order to change one or several of their characteristics such as performance or expected outcome. Interview Protocol: standard list of questions together with guidance on how to classify responses. Intervention Research: also called operations research; research that includes design, implementation, and assessment of a service-delivery or community intervention. Intrauterine Growth Restriction: estimated fetal weight less than the 10th percentile. The term intrauterine growth restriction includes normal fetuses at the lower end of the growth spectrum, as well as those specific clinical conditions in which the fetus fails to achieve its inherent growth potential as a consequence of either pathologic extrinsic influences (such as maternal smoking) or intrinsic genetic defects (such as aneuploidy). Distinctions between normal and pathologic growth often cannot be made reliably in clinical practice, especially before birth. Intravesical Pressure: pressure within the bladder. Intrinsic Goal: a goal that is valued in and of itself. Intrinsic Sphincter Deficiency (ISD): cause of stress urinary incontinence in which the urethral sphincter is unable to contract and generate sufficient resistance in the bladder, especially during stress maneuvers. ISD may be due to congenital sphincter weakness, such as myelomeningocele or epispadias, or it may be acquired subsequent to prostatectomy, trauma, radiation therapy, or sacral cord lesions. Introitus: external vaginal opening. Intron: a region of a gene, made up of non-coding DNA sequences that lies between exons. Portions of genomic DNA that are interspersed between exons and are transcribed along with the exons into Heteronuclear RNA. Inverse Square Law: the intensity of radiation from a point varies inversely as the square of the distance from the source. Thus, the dose rate at 2 cm from a source is one fourth that at 1 cm. At 3 cm, the dose rate is one-ninth that at 1 cm. Inversion: a mutation involving the removal of a DNA sequence, its rotation through 180 degrees, and its reinsertion in the same location. In- Vitro: studies performed outside a living organism such as in a laboratory. In- Vivo: studies carried out in living organisms. Independent Assortment: during meiosis each of the two copies of a gene is distributed to the germ cells independently of the distribution of other genes. See also — linkage. Informatics: see — bioinformatics. Informed Consent: an individual willingly agrees to participate in an activity after first being advised of the risks and benefits. See also — privacy. Inherit: in genetics, to receive genetic material from parents through biological processes. Inherited: see — inherit. Insertion: a chromosome abnormality in which a piece of DNA is incorporated into a gene and thereby disrupts the gene’s normal function. See also — chromosome, DNA, gene, mutation. Insertional Mutation: see — insertion. Intellectual Property Rights: patents, copyrights, and trademarks. See also — patent. Interference: one crossover event inhibits the chances of another crossover event. Also known as positive interference. Negative interference increases the chance of a second crossover. See also — crossing over. Interphase: the period in the cell cycle when DNA is replicated in the nucleus; followed by mitosis. Intron: DNA sequence that interrupts the protein-coding sequence of a gene; an intron is transcribed into RNA but is cut out of the message before it is translated into protein. See also — exon. Ionization: the removal of an electron from an atom, leaving a positively charged ion. Ionizing Radiation: radiation capable of causing ionization. Ischemia: it is impairment of blood flow to tissues either because of constriction or frank obstruction of a blood vessel. Iso- : identical. Isoantibody: the term used in blood grouping studies to designate an antibody formed by one individual that reacts with antigens of another individual of the same species. See also alloantibody. Isoantigen: see alloantigen. The isoantigen is commonly used in hematology. Isoenzyme: an enzyme performing the same function as another enzyme but having a different set of amino acids. The two enzymes may function at different speeds. Isogeneic: see syngeneic. Isograft: see syngraft. Isoimmune: see alloimmune. Isologous: see syngeneic. Isotope: nuclides having an equal number of protons but a different number of neutrons (excitable situation).Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Y Chromosome: one of the two sex chromosomes, X and Y. See also X chromosome, sex chromosome. Yeast Artificial Chromosome (YAC): constructed from yeast DNA, it is a vector used to clone large DNA fragments. See also — cloning vector, cosmid                Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Junk DNA: stretches of DNA that do not code for genes; most of the genome consists of so-called junk DNA which may have regulatory and other functions. Also called non-coding DNA. Justice: it is the principle of rendering what is due to others. It is most complex of the ethical principles to be considered because it deals not only with the physician’s obligation to render to a patient what is owed but also with the physician’s role in allocation of limited medical resources in the community. The principle of justice applies at many levels.                Read More