A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Data: information collected to answer research questions. Data Analysis: the process of answering research questions through the qualitative and quantitative manipulation of data. Data Collectors: persons trained to collect data (or information). Data Interchange Standard: a set of rules for sending information between machines. Includes agreement and standardization on the concepts exchanged (e.g., “primary sponsor”), and agreement and standardization on the structure of the actual message that is exchanged. Data Warehouse: a collection of databases, data tables, and mechanisms to access the data on a single subject. D Cell (Double Cell): lymphocytes that appear to have characteristics of both T and B cells. Decentralization: changing relations within and between a variety of organizational structures/ bodies, resulting in the transfer of the authority to plan, make decisions or manage public functions from the national level to any organization or agency at the sub-national level. Decision Making: the process of reviewing the findings and recommendations of a HIA and making choices about how they should be taken forward. Decreased Bladder Compliance: failure to store urine in the bladder caused by the loss of bladder wall elasticity and of bladder accommodation. This condition may result from radiation cystitis or from inflammatory bladder conditions such as chemical cystitis, interstitial cystitis, and certain neurologic bladder disorders. Decubitus Ulcer: area of local tissue necrosis (death or damage) that usually develops where soft tissues are compressed between bony prominences and any external surface for prolonged periods. Deductible: cost-sharing in the form of a fixed amount which must be paid for a service or of total cost incurred over a defined period by a covered person before the third-party payer then covers all of or a percentage of the rest of the cost. Defecation: act of emptying the bowels or having a bowel movement. Defining Goal: the single most characteristic and specific reason for setting up a system, its raison d’être. Dehydration: state that occurs when not enough fluid is present to fulfill the body’s fluid needs. Deinstitutionalization: the transfer of patients from institutional settings to community settings. Delayed Hypersensitivity: a specific sensitive state characterized by a delay of many hours in initiation time and course of reaction. It is transferable with cell but not with serum. Delegation: giving an authority the right to plan and implement decisions relating to particular activities without direct supervision by a higher authority. Deletion: a mutation that is generated by removal of a sequence of DNA, with the regions on either side being joined together. A loss of part of the DNA from a chromosome; can lead to a disease or abnormality. See also — chromosome, mutation. Deletion Map: a description of a specific chromosome that uses defined mutations –specific deleted areas in the genome– as ‘biochemical signposts,’ or markers for specific areas. Dementia: general loss of short- and long-term memory and mental deterioration. It may affect emotions, abstract thinking, judgment, impulse control, and learning and can cause functional incontinence. Demography: the quantitative and qualitative study of population dynamics. Dendritic Cells: white blood cells found in the spleen and other lymphoid organs. Dendritic cells typically use thread-like tentacles to enmesh antigens, which they present to T cells. Dentists Ratio: the number of dentists available per every 10,000 inhabitants in a population, at a given year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Deoxyribonucleotide: see — nucleotide. Deoxyribose: a type of sugar that is one component of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Dependency Ratio: indicator used in population studies to measure the portion of the population which is economically dependent on active age group. It is calculated as the sum of 0-14 year olds and over 60 or 65 year olds, depending on the working age limit considered, divided by the number of people aged betwe15 and 59 or 64, respectively. For the purpose of the World Health Report, it is calculated as the sum of 0-14 year olds and over 65 year olds divided by the number of people aged betwe15 and 64. Dependant: the spouse, children or other close relatives of a person covered by a health plan who are covered free of additional taxes, contributions or premiums. Dependent Variable: the variable which the researcher wants to predict or explain. Descriptive Data: data or information that describe “who”, “what”, “where”, or “how many”. Desensitization: the procedure of rendering a sensitive individual insensitive to an antigen or hapten by treatment with that specific agent. Design Effect: a specific form of bias attributable to intra-class correlation in CLUSTER SAMPLING. The design effect for a cluster design is the ratio of the prevalence for that design to the variance calculated from a simple random sample random sample of the same size. Determinant Group: the part of the structure of an antigen molecule that is responsible for specific interaction with antibody molecules evoked by the same or a similar antigen. Determinants of Health: determinants of health are factors which influence health status and determine health differentials or health inequalities. They are many and varied and include, for example, · natural, biological factors, such as age, gender and ethnicity; x behavior and lifestyles, such as smoking, alcohol consumption, diet and physical exercise; x the physical and social environment, including housing quality, the workplace and the wider urban and rural environment; and x access to health care. (Lalonde, 1974; Labonté 1993) All of these are closely interlinked and differentials in their distribution lead to health inequalities. Detrusor: smooth muscle bladder wall that stretches to accommodate and store urine and contracts uniformly to expel of urine. Detrusor Hyperactivity with Impaired Bladder Contractility (DHIC): condition characterized by involuntary detrusor contractions in which patients either are unable to empty their bladders completely or can empty their bladders completely only when straining, due to poor contractility of the detrusor. Detrusor Overactivity: urodynamic observation characterized by involuntary detrusor contractions during bladder filling, which may be spontaneous or provoked. Detrusor Overactivity Incontinence: incontinence due to an involuntary detrusor contraction. Detrusor Sphincter Dyssynergia (DSD): inappropriate contraction of the urethral and/or periurethral striated sphincter concurrent with an involuntary contraction of the detrusor. Occasionally voiding may be prevented altogether. Detrusor Underactivity: contraction of reduced strength and/or duration, resulting in prolonged bladder emptying and/or failure to achieve complete bladder emptying within a normal time span. Devolution: Involves passing responsibility and a degree of independence to regional or local government, with or without financial responsibility (i.e. the ability to raise and spend revenues). Diabetic Neuropathy: condition in which portions of the spinal cord and its nerves have degenerated as a result of diabetes. Diagnosis-Related Group (DRG): a way of categorizing patients according to diagnosis and intensity of resources required, usually for the period of one hospital stay. Diagnosis-Based Payment: refers to a mechanism whereby the provider or health care organization receives a fixed, pre-specified payment for each instance in which they treat an individual with a specified diagnosis. Diagnostic Studies: exploratory studies; studies that help develop the context of a specific issue or problem. Differentiation: the process of acquiring individual characteristics, as occurs in progressive diversification of cells and tissues of the developing pre-embryo and embryo. Dignity: the right of individuals to be treated with respect as persons in their own right. Dilatation and Curettage: a technique that may be used for induced abortion. It involves stretching the cervical channel and scraping the interior of the uterine cavity to remove products of conception. Diploid: a full set of genetic material consisting of paired chromosomes, one from each parental set. A cell having two chromosome sets, one maternal and one paternal, twice the haploid number (in humans, 46). Most animal cells except the gametes have a diploid set of chromosomes. The diploid human genome has 46 chromosomes. See also — haploid. Direct Methods: methods or questions that explicitly expose the data collector’s true intentions. Directed Evolution: a laboratory process used on isolated molecules or microbes to cause mutations and identify subsequent adaptations to novel environments. Directed Mutagenesis: alteration of DNA at a specific site and its reinsertion into an organism to study any effects of the change. Directed Sequencing: successively sequencing DNA from adjacent stretches of chromosome. Disadvantaged / Vulnerable / Marginalized Groups: these terms are applied to groups of people who, due to factors usually considered outside their control, do not have the same opportunities as other, more fortunate groups in society. Examples might include unemployed people, refugees and others who are socially excluded. Disability-Adjusted Life Expectancy: the number of healthy years of life that can be expected on average in a given population. It is generally calculated at birth, but estimates can also be prepared at other ages. Healthy life expectancy has the advantage of capturing all causes of disability across a population and relating them to life expectancy defined by mortality. Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs): the number of healthy years of life lost due to premature death and disability. A unit for measuring both the global burden of disease and the effectiveness of health interventions, as indicated by reductions in the disease burden. It is calculated as the present value of the future years of disability-free life that are lost as the result of the premature deaths or cases of disability occurring in a particular year. Discharge: the official termination of a patient’s stay in a hospital or other medical facility to which one has been admitted. Disease-Associated Genes: alleles carrying particular DNA sequences associated with the presence of disease. Disimpaction: act of removing stool from the rectum, which could not be eliminated normally. Disinfection: treatment of objects or surfaces to remove or inactivate organisms such as vegetative bacteria, viruses and fungi, but not spores. Disinfection can be achieved by heat, by immersion in boiling water or by applying certain antiseptics. Dispensary: a specialized ambulatory facility which can be assigned to a hospital or serve as an independent institution. Distribution: the complete summary of the frequencies of the values or categories of a measurement made on a group of persons. The distribution tells either how many or what proportion of the group was found to have each value (or range of values) out of all the possible values that the quantitative measure can have. Diuresis: production of excessive amounts of urine that may precipitate urinary incontinence or overactive bladder. Can be caused by medical problems such as diabetes mellitus and edema. Diuretic: agent (e.g., drug, alcohol, caffeine) that increases urination by causing the kidneys to secrete more fluid from the blood. Diverticula: pouches in the walls of organs that, if found in the bladder or urethra, can hold excess urine and become infected or inflamed. DMFT Index at Age 12: the mean number of permanent teeth decayed, filled and missing (DMFT) in children at age 12, in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): a double-helical structure composed of two coils of nucleotide chains connected by nitrogen bases. The molecule that encodes genetic information. DNA is a double-stranded molecule held together by weak bonds between base pairs of nucleotides. The four nucleotides in DNA contain the bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In nature, base pairs form only between A and T and between G and C; thus the base sequence of each single strand can be deduced from that of its partner. DNA Bank: a service that stores DNA extracted from blood samples or other human tissue. DNA Hybridization: a process whereby labeled nucleic acid molecules (oligonucleotide probe) bind to a DNA sequence on a target (Southern blot, metaphase chromosomes, or interphase nuclei) that is complementary to its own. DNA Methylation: a process for control of tissue specific gene expression. Methylation “turns off” the regulatory region of a gene, thereby preventing DNA transcription. DNA Probe: a short segment of DNA in which the base sequence is specifically complementary to a particular gene segment. The probe is used, for example, on the Southern blot assay to determine whether a certain gene is present in a tumor sample undergoing DNA analysis. See — probe. DNA Repair Genes: genes encoding proteins that correct errors in DNA sequencing. DNA Replication: the use of existing DNA as a template for the synthesis of new DNA strands. In humans and other eukaryotes, replication occurs in the cell nucleus. DNA Sequence: the relative order of base pairs, whether in a DNA fragment, gene, chromosome, or an entire genome. See also — base sequence analysis. Domain: a discrete portion of a protein with its own function. The combination of domains in a single protein determines its overall function. Dominant: an allele that is almost always expressed, even if only one copy is present. See also — gene, genome. Domus Unit: small community-based residential facilities that seek to maintain residents’ independence and residual capacities through active participation. Donors: people providing either sperm or ova. Dosimetry: the term applied to the measurement and calculation of dose that the patient receives. Double Helix: the twisted-ladder shape that two linear strands of DNA assume when complementary nucleotides on opposing strands bond together. Draft Sequence: the sequence generated by the HGP as of June 2000 that, while incomplete, offers a virtual road map to an estimated 95% of all human genes. Draft sequence data are mostly in the form of 10,000 base pair-sized fragments whose approximate chromosomal locations are known. See also — sequencing, finished DNA sequence, working draft DNA sequence. Dry Sex: a sexual practice that involves penetrative vaginal sex where the woman has a dry vagina. Sometimes herbs are used to increase the dryness. Dry sex increases the risks of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Dual Method Use: using a barrier method for protection against sexually transmitted infection and another method for contraception. Dual Protection: prevention of both STI/HIV infection and unwanted pregnancy. This can be achieved by the correct and consistent use of condoms alone or by the simultaneous use of two methods, one of which must be a condom. Dual Risk: risk of both pregnancy and STI/HIV. Dysmaturity Syndrome: a dysmature fetus is characterized by wasting of subcutaneous tissue, meconium staining, peeling or desquamating skin, long fingernails, and often an alert facial expression; some are said to have “parchment-like” skin. Dyspareunia: painful intercourse. Dysuria: difficult or painful urination.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     QALY (Quality-Adjusted Life-Years): a measure that combines mortality and quality of life gains (outcome of a treatment measured as the number of years of life saved, adjusted for quality). Qualitative and Quantitative: HIA tries to balance qualitative and quantitative evidence. It involves an evaluation of the quantitative, “scientific” evidence where it exists but also recognizes the importance of more qualitative information. This may include the opinions, experience and expectations of those people most directly affected by public policies and try to balance the various types of evidence (Barnes and Scott Samuel, 1999). Generally speaking, quantitative evidence is based on what can be counted or measured objectively whilst qualitative evidence cannot be measured in the usual ways and may more subjective, for example, encompassing people’s perceptions, opinions and views. Qualitative Variable: a variable or response that describes a quality rather than a quantity; qualitative variables are usually described in words rather than numbers. Quality: a character, characteristic, or property of anything that makes it good or bad, commendable or reprehensible; thus, the degree of excellence that a thing possesses. Quality of Basic Amenities: one of the aspects of the responsiveness of health systems whereby non-health enhancing physical attributes of health care units, such as cleanliness of the facility, adequacy of furniture and quality of food, are paid attention to. Quality of Medical Care: the degree to which health services for individuals and populations increase the likelihood of desired health outcomes and are consistent with current professional knowledge. Quality of Pharmaceutical Products: the suitability of drugs for their intended use is determined by: Their efficiency weighed against safety, according to label claim, or as promoted or publicized Their conformity to specifications regarding identity, purity and other characteristics. The quality assurance of pharmaceutical products is a wide-ranging concept covering all matters that individually or collectively influence the quality of a product. It is the totality of the arrangements made to ensure that pharmaceutical products are of the quality required for their intended use. The quality control of pharmaceutical products is a concept that covers all measures taken, including the setting of specifications, sampling, testing and analytical clearance, to ensure that the raw materials, intermediates, packaging materials and finished pharmaceutical products conform with established specifications for identity, strength, purity and other characteristics. Quantitative Variable: a variable or response that describes a quantity rather than a quality; quantitative variables are usually described in numbers as well as, or instead of, words. Quasi-Experimental Research Design: research designs that allow researchers to take an experimental approach without full experimental control; usually, these designs do not include random assignment of subjects but do include supplementary cross-checks for validity, and may also include the use of control groups. Quasi-Experimental Study: a study with non-random assignment of participants to groups, usually because it would be unethical or unfeasible to randomize.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Calories Availability: the average nutritional energy content of the total daily per capita food supply, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, over a specific period in time, usually a year. Technical Note: Calorie availability is derived from food balance sheets standardized for a range of primary food commodities for human consumption, originated from supply/utilization national accounts and maintained by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. Cancer: diseases in which abnormal cells divide and grow unchecked. Cancer can spread from its original site to other parts of the body and can be fatal. See also — hereditary cancer, sporadic cancer. Candidate Gene: a gene located in a chromosome region suspected of being involved in a disease. See also — positional cloning, protein. Cantou: communal non-medical care in 12-15 room units organized around common living areas, in a home-like atmosphere with family participation encouraged. Cap: a limit on the amount that a payer or group of payers will pay. Capillary Array: gel-filled silica capillaries used to separate fragments for DNA sequencing. The small diameter of the capillaries permit the application of higher electric fields, providing high speed, high throughput separations that are significantly faster than traditional slab gels. Capital: an accumulation of financial resources not required for current consumption. This allows a contribution to be made to productive activity by investment in physical capital (such as buildings) and in human capital (such as education and training). Capital Expenditure: the expenditure that is required for financing permanent or semi-permanent facilities or equipment, such as buildings etc. Capital Investment: funding for resources such as buildings or other “one-off” purchases such as computer hardware and software and other office equipment. Capitation, in contrast to Fee-for-Service: a fixed payment to a provider for each listed or enrolled person served per period of time. Capping: the addition of 7-methlyguanosine residues to the 5΄ end of eukaryotic mRNA. Carcinogen: something which causes cancer to occur by causing changes in a cell’s DNA. See also — mutagene. Carrier: an individual who possesses an unexpressed, recessive trait. Caruncle (Urethral Caruncle): small, red benign tumor that is visible at the posterior part of the urethral meatus. Occurs chiefly in postmenopausal women and usually causes no symptoms. Case-Based Payment , see Payment: third-party payers pay physicians/ hospitals according to the cases treated rather than per service or per bed days. Case Control Study: a study in which participants are divided into exposed and non exposed groups and studied over a specific time. A study in which subjects are selected based on their presence of or absence of a selected disease or disorder. Case History: research that focuses in-depth on a particular (single) phenomenon, place, or person. Case-Mix: the composition of patients treated by a hospital or another provider. Case Series: an uncontrolled study of outcomes for a series of patients receiving a particular intervention. Cash Limit, see Cap: a limit imposed by the government on the amount of cash which a public body may spend during a given financial year. Catchment Area: a geographic area defined and served by a health plan or a health care provider. Catchment Population: estimate of the population served by a hospital or other health service unit or facility. Cathartics: medications that increase the clearing of intestinal contents. Also known as laxatives. Catheter: narrow, flexible rubber, latex, or silastic tube that is inserted or passed through the urethra or lower abdomen and into the bladder for the purpose of draining urine or performing diagnostic tests of bladder or urethral function. cDNA Library: a collection of DNA sequences that code for genes. The sequences are generated in the laboratory from mRNA sequences. See also — messenger RNA. Cell: the basic unit of any living organism that carries on the biochemical processes of life. See also — genome, nucleus. Cell-mediated Cytotoxicity: killing (lysis) of a target cell by an effector lymphocyte. Cell-mediated Immunity: immune reaction mediated by T cells, in contrast to humoral immunity, which is antibody mediated. Also referred to as delayed-type hypersensitivity. Census: an enumeration (inventory) of a population, which usually includes demographic information but may also include information on basic health-related issues. Centimorgan (cM): a unit of measure of recombination frequency. One centimorgan is equal to a 1% chance that a marker at one genetic locus will be separated from a marker at a second locus due to crossing over in a single generation. In human beings, one centimorgan is equivalent, on average, to one million base pairs. See also — megabase. Central Repository: a central database that contains the trial registration data sets provided by each Contributing Register. Centralization: the concentration of managerial functions at one point within the system. Centralized Planning: Planning governed centrally by the state covering all the goods and services that will be produced and how factors of production shall be allocated between sectors of a business or an economy. Centromere: a specialized chromosome region to which spindle fibers attach during cell division. c-erb-b2 Proto-Oncogene: also referred to as HER-2 or neu, this gene encodes a protein that is structurally similar to the receptor for epidermal growth factor. When it is amplified, the gene is of prognostic significance in breast and ovarian neoplasm. Cerebral Palsy: chronic static neuromuscular disability characterized by aberrant control of movement or posture, appearing early in life and not the result of recognized progressive disease. Cervix: lower portion of the uterus that connects with the vagina. Charges, see Price: a price imposed on goods or services. Chimera (pl. chimaera): an organism with tissues composed of two or more genetically distinct cell types. An organism that contains cells or tissues with a different genotype. These can be mutated cells of the host organism or cells from a different organism or species. Chimeraplasty: an experimental targeted repair process in which a desirable sequence of DNA is combined with RNA to form a chimeraplast. These molecules bind selectively to the target DNA. Once bound, the chimeraplast activates a naturally occurring gene-correcting mechanism. Does not use viral or other conventional gene-delivery vectors. See also — gene therapy, cloning vector. Chi Square: the primary statistical test used or studying the relationship between variables. This is a test used to compare proportions of categorical variables. Chloroplast Chromosome: circular DNA found in the photosynthesizing organelle (chloroplast) of plants instead of the cell nucleus where most genetic material is located. Choice of Care Provider: One of the aspects of the responsiveness of health systems whereby those seeking care have a choice between and within health care units, including opportunities for gaining specialist care and second opinions. Cholinergic: relating to fibers in the parasympathetic nervous system that release acetylcholine. Chorioamnionitis (Clinical): a clinical presentation that may include maternal fever, maternal and fetal tachycardia, elevated white blood count, uterine tenderness, and foul-smelling vaginal effluent. The process can obviously evolve from mild sub-clinical to clinical disease. Chorioamnionitis (Pathologic): inflammation of the fetal membranes is a manifestation of an intrauterine infection and is frequently associated with prolonged membrane rupture and long labors. When mononuclear and polymorphonuclear leukocytes infiltrate the chorion, the resulting microscopic finding is designated chorioamnionitis. Chromatin: an intranuclear and intrachromosomal complex made up to DNA, and histone and nonhistone proteins. Chromomere: one of the serially aligned beads or granules of a eukaryotic chromosome, resulting from local coiling of a continuous DNA thread. Chromosomal Deletion: the loss of part of a chromosome’s DNA. Chromosomal Inversion: chromosome segments that have been turned 180 degrees. The gene sequence for the segment is reversed with respect to the rest of the chromosome. Chromosome: the self-replicating genetic structure of cells containing the cellular DNA that bears in its nucleotide sequence the linear array of genes. In prokaryotes, chromosomal DNA is circular, and the entire genome is carried on one chromosome. Eukaryotic genomes consist of a number of chromosomes whose DNA is associated with different kinds of proteins. Chromosome Painting: attachment of certain fluorescent dyes to targeted parts of the chromosome. Used as a diagnostic for particular diseases, e.g. types of leukemia. Chromosome Region p: a designation for the short arm of a chromosome. Chromosome Region q: a designation for the long arm of a chromosome. Class I, Class II, and Class III MHC Molecules: proteins encoded by genes in the major histocompatibility complex. Cleaning: the physical removal of most microorganisms and contamination, using detergent and water. Clinical Audit, see Outcome: a cyclical evaluation and measurement by health professionals of the clinical standards they are achieving. Clinical Guidelines , see Guidelines: systematically developed statements to assist practitioner and patient decisions about appropriate health care for specific clinical circumstances. Clinical Practice Guidelines: set of systematically developed statements or recommendations designed to assist practitioner and patient in making decisions about appropriate health care for specific clinical circumstances. Such guidelines are designed to assist health care practitioners in the prevention, diagnosis, treatment, and management of specific clinical conditions. Clinical Study: research that focuses on some aspect of a biomedical event, technology, or intervention. Clinical Trials: these are experiments in which the investigator intervenes rather than observes and is the best test of cause-and-effect relationship. The gold standard of clinical trials is the randomized experiment. Randomization is important because it equalizes baseline characteristics of the subjects so that the comparison of the treatments is fair. If randomization is not feasible, possible non-random standards of comparison must include patients similar to the treated group. Randomization is the current norm of demonstrating efficacy and safety of investigational methods. Clinical Trial, Interventional: any research study that prospectively assigns human participants or groups of humans to one or more health-related interventions to evaluate the effects on health outcomes. Interventions include but are not restricted to drugs, cells and other biological products, surgical procedures, radiologic procedures, devices, behavioral treatments, process-of-care changes, preventive care, etc. Clinical Trial Register: the formal record of an internationally agreed minimum amount of information about a clinical trial (trial registration data set). This record is usually stored in and managed using a database. Clinical Trial Registry: the entity that houses the clinical trial register. It is responsible for ensuring the completeness and accuracy of the information the register contains, and that the registered information is used to inform health care decision making. Clonal Selection Theory: the prevalent concept that specificity and diversity of an immune response are the result of selection by antigen of specifically reactive clones from a large repertoire of preformed lymphocytes, each with individual specificities. Clone: an exact copy made of biological material such as a DNA segment (e.g., a gene or other region), a whole cell, or a complete organism. A population of cells derived from a single cell by asexual division. Clone Bank: see — genomic library. Cloning: using specialized DNA technology to produce multiple, exact copies of a single gene or other segment of DNA to obtain enough material for further study. This process, used by researchers in the Human Genome Project, is referred to as cloning DNA. The resulting cloned (copied) collections of DNA molecules are called clone libraries. A second type of cloning exploits the natural process of cell division to make many copies of an entire cell. The genetic makeup of these cloned cells, called a cell line, is identical to the original cell. A third type of cloning produces complete, genetically identical animals such as the famous Scottish sheep, Dolly. See also — cloning vector. Cloning Vector: DNA molecule originating from a virus, a plasmid, or the cell of a higher organism into which another DNA fragment of appropriate size can be integrated without loss of the vector’s capacity for self-replication; vectors introduce foreign DNA into host cells, where the DNA can be reproduced in large quantities. Examples are plasmids, cosmids, and yeast artificial chromosomes; vectors are often recombinant molecules containing DNA sequences from several sources. Closed-Ended Questions: fixed-choice questions that require the respondent to choose a response from the choices provided. Clue Cells: vaginal cells covered with bacteria; commonly present in women who have a vaginal infection. Cluster Sampling: a cluster sample is one in which the whole population being studied is divided into clusters or groups, and a selection of these clusters is then made, and the entire population or a random sample of subjects within these sub-clusters are sampled. (e.g. if the sampling frame was an entire city, then the city would be broken down into city blocks and certain randomly selected city blocks would be sampled instead of the entire city. Code: see — genetic code. Codominance: situation in which two different alleles for a genetic trait are both expressed. See also — autosomal dominant, recessive gene. Co-Dominant: alleles that are different from each other, but both are expressed in the phenotype. Codon: a section of DNA (three nucleotide pairs in length) that codes for a single amino acid. See — genetic code. Cohort Study: an observational study following a group over time, comparing the outcomes of subsets who received different types of care; because random allocation is not used, matching or statistical adjustment at the analysis stage should be used to minimize the influence of factors other than the intervention or factor of interest. Collaborating Register: can be any clinical trial register that registers trials prospectively (that is, before the first participant is recruited). There are 2 types of Collaborating Register: Contributing and Non-Contributing. Colony-Forming Units: hematopoietic progenitors that proliferate and give rise to a colony of hematopoietic cells. Colony-Stimulating Factor: a polypeptide that promotes the growth of hematopoietic progenitors. Co-Insurance (rate), see Cost-Sharing: cost-sharing in the form of a set proportion of the cost of a service. Coisogenic or Congenic: nearly identical strains of an organism; they vary at only a single locus. Command and Control Economy, see Semashko System: either government regulation of a health care market by detailed central planning and fixing of prices, quantities and capacity; or government regulation of a public integrated health care system via line management, with the aim of planning and managing the allocation of resources and the pursuit of efficiency objectives without relying on markets or competition. Commissioning: the process by which the health needs of the population are defined, priorities determined and appropriate services purchased and evaluated. Commissioning Services: the process of identifying the need for services and making a contract with those able to provide them. Committed Cell: a cell committed to the production of specific antibodies to a given antigen determinant. Committed cells include primed cells, memory cells, and antibody-producing cells. Community Effectiveness, see Effectiveness: the ability of a particular medical action to alter the national history of a particular disease for the better, under actual conditions of practice and use. Community Participation: involving the community in an activity such as the planning of projects or carrying out a HIA. There are a number of models of community participation, some of which are outlined in the Gothenburg consensus paper on HIA (WHO, 1999). Community Rating: technique for adjusting insurance premiums according to family size or income. Community Study: used in this document to describe research conducted in a community setting other than a hospital or other health-care facility; a community study may or may not be population based; subjects may include members from one, several, or all of the groups that comprise a community, including: school children or other adolescents, business or professional people, men (in general), women (in general), women of reproductive age, factory workers, members of the clergy, local health-care workers, local politicians or policy-makers, etc. Comparative Genomics: the study of human genetics by comparisons with model organisms such as mice, the fruit fly, and the bacterium E. coli. Comparative Genomic Hybridization: a cytogenetic method based on a combination of fluorescence microscopy and digital image analysis. Differentially labeled test DNA and normal reference DNA are hybridized simultaneously to normal chromosome spreads. Hybridization is detected with two different fluorochromes. Deletion, duplication, or amplifications are seen as changes in the ratio of the intensities of the two fluorochromes along the target chromosomes. Comparative Study: a study whereby one or more characteristics of two or more groups, places, institutions, etc. are compared. Competition: Rivalry between two or more sellers for revenue, market share, or other advantage. Complement (C’): a multifactorial system of one or more normal serum components characterized by their capacity to participate in certain and specific antigen-antibody reactions. Complement Activation: promotion of the killing or lytic actions of complement. Complement Cascade: a precise sequence of events usually triggered by an antigen-antibody complex, in which each component of the complement system is activated in turn. Complement Fixation: the fixation of C’ to an antigen-antibody complex. Complementary DNA (cDNA): DNA that is synthesized in the laboratory from a messenger RNA template. Complementary DNA (cDNA) Probe: a DNA sequence that is exactly complementary to mRNA, lacking introns and regulatory regions. Complementary Sequence: nucleic acid base sequence that can form a double-stranded structure with another DNA fragment by following base-pairing rules (A pairs with T and C with G). The complementary sequence to GTAC for example, is CATG. Complex Trait: trait that has a genetic component that does not follow strict Mendelian inheritance. May involve the interaction of two or more genes or gene-environment interactions. See also — Mendelian inheritance, additive genetic effects. Complicated Abortion: spontaneous or induced abortion that results in complications, such as infection or bleeding. Comprehensive (maxi) HIA: a comprehensive or “maxi” HIA is a much more detailed rigorous exercise than either a rapid or intermediate HIA. It usually involves the participation of the full range of stakeholders, an extensive literature search, secondary analysis of existing data and the collection of new data. “Control” populations may also be used (Parry and Stevens, 2001). Compulsory Health Insurance: health insurance under an obligatory scheme by law, usually with contributions that are income-related. Computational Biology: see — bioinformatics. Concurrent HIA: concurrent HIA is carried out whilst a policy, program or project is being implemented. Confidence Interval (CI): the computed interval with a given probability, i.e., 95%, that the true value of a variable such as a mean, proportion or rate is contained within the interval. Confidence interval (e.g. 95%) represents a range of values within which it is 95% certain that the true population value of the rate is present. The range of values that is believed to contain the true value within a specific level of certainty. Confidentiality: one of the aspects of the responsiveness of health systems whereby privacy in the context of privileged communication (such as patient-doctor consultations) and medical records is safeguarded. In genetics, the expectation that genetic material and the information gained from testing that material will not be available without the donor’s consent. An ethical practice for maintaining privacy and protecting the identity of research subjects. Confounding: a situation in which the effects of two processes are not separated. The distortion of the apparent effect of two processes is not separated. The distortion of the apparent effect of an exposure on risk brought about by the association with other factors that can influence the outcome. A relationship between the effects of two or more casual factors as observed in a set of data such that it is not logically possible to separate the contribution that any single causal factor has made to an effect. A situation in which a measure of the effect of an exposure on risk is distorted because of the association of exposure with other factor(s) that influence the outcome under study. Congenital: any trait present at birth, whether the result of a genetic or nongenetic factor. See also — birth defect. Conjugates: yoked or coupled substances, that is, immunoconjugates, such as monoclonal antibodies conjugates with drugs, toxins, or radioisotopes. Consensus Building: the process by which a group reaches agreement about the best solution to a problem or the best choice among alternative options. Conserved Sequence: a base sequence in a DNA molecule (or an amino acid sequence in a protein) that has remained essentially unchanged throughout evolution. Consultation/Liaison (CL) Services: consultation — referral for mental health assessment and management advice; treatment may be provided by either the consultant or the referring agent. Liaison — mental health service working with patients and health professionals in specific units; usually includes an educational role, collaboration with unit staff, and a good understanding of systems theory; often patients are discussed but not seen. Content Analysis: a form of qualitative data analysis that allows researchers to categorize and report a potentially wide range of symbolic (descriptive) and often explanatory information; various categories of qualitative data may be quantified (where appropriate) and compared to other categories of data. Constitutive Ablation: gene expression that results in cell death. Constitutive Heterochromatin: condensed genetically inactive chromatin located in the same regions of both homologous chromosomes. Contributing Register: a Contributing Register is a Collaborating Register that makes data available for inclusion in the Central Repository. There are 2 types of Contributing Register: Primary and Partner registers. Control Site: a data-collection site that is similar to a second data-collection site except for one or more defined variables that are explicitly different at the second (or intervention) site. Consultation: a technique of social interaction where opinions of all stakeholders are sought before a decision is made. Consumer: a buyer or user of goods or services in the economy. Someone who uses, is affected by, or who is entitled or compelled to use a health related service. Consumer Satisfaction: a measurement that obtains reports or ratings from consumers about services received from an organization; in this context, this often means from a hospital, physician or health care provider. Consumer Sovereignty: the overall power that consumers can have in a market to control the nature, quality and volume of goods and services produced, by the act of purchasing only those goods and services for which they are willing and able to pay. Contig: group of cloned (copied) pieces of DNA representing overlapping regions of a particular chromosome. Contig Map: a map depicting the relative order of a linked library of overlapping clones representing a complete chromosomal segment. Contiguous Gene Deletion Syndrome: a syndrome caused by a deletion involving genes that are physically located together in a chromosome segment. Continuous Urinary Incontinence: report that a person has leaked urine without sensation or precipitating factors such as exertion or effort. Absence of sensation may be due to neurologic disorder. Contract: agreement between payer(s) and provider(s) which define in advance the health services to be purchased, the quantity, quality and price. Contract Model , in contrast to Integrated Model: the system of health service provision which involves contracts between three separate parties: a) the beneficiaries; or patients; b) the fund-holders or purchasers acting on behalf of the beneficiaries; and c) the providers of services. Contracting-Out: services requested under contract from one provider (often a hospital) to a specialized one (e.g., for laundry), independent of ownership. Contribution: monies paid by or on behalf of insured persons to a health insurer to purchase the coverage of a defined range of services (the benefit package). Convenience Sample: a non-probability sample that is drawn based on convenience rather than representation of a larger population. Coordination: a technique of social interaction where various processes are considered simultaneously and their evolution arranged for the optimum benefit of the whole. Co-Payment, see Cost-Sharing, Co-Insurance: cost-sharing in the form of a fixed amount to be paid for a service. Cosmid: artificially constructed cloning vector containing the cos gene of phage lambda. Cosmids can be packaged in lambda phage particles for infection into E. coli; this permits cloning of larger DNA fragments (up to 45kb) than can be introduced into bacterial hosts in plasmid vectors. Cost(s): the value of the resources used in an activity, also the benefits sacrificed through a particular event of choice of action rather than another. Cost Containment: measures taken to reduce expenditure or the rate of growth of expenditure, or the unit cost of services. Cost of Illness (study): total costs incurred by a society due to a specific disease. Cost Shifting: the process of using excess revenues from one set of services or patients to subsidise other services or patient groups. Cost Study: a research study that helps document and explain cost and resource utilization. Coverage: share of population eligible for health care benefits (in-kind) under public programs. Cox Proportional Hazard Regression Analysis: it is a technique for assessing the association between variables and survival rate. The measure of risk provided for each variable is the risk ratio (RR). A risk ratio of 1 means that the risk is the same for each participant. A risk ratio greater than 1 indicates increased risk; a ratio less than 1 indicates less risk. This type of analysis is usually presented in a table. Cream Skimming, in contrast to Adverse Selection: a process whereby an insurer tries to select the most favorable individuals with expected losses below the premium charged (or the capitation payment received) in order to increase profits. Created Capital: physical infrastructure, buildings, machinery and equipment. Crossing Over: the breaking during meiosis of one maternal and one paternal chromosome, the exchange of corresponding sections of DNA, and the rejoining of the chromosomes. This process can result in an exchange of alleles between chromosomes. See also — recombination. Cross-Sectional Design: studies in which data are collected at one point in time. Cross Sectional Study: a study that measures the prevalence of a disease or risk factor is a population at a given point in time. Cross-Tabulations: a method of analyzing the relationships between dependent and independent variables. Cross-tabulations are presented in tables with one category of variable (usually the dependent variable) presented across the top (or row) and categories of another variable (usually the independent variable) presented in the left-hand column (also known as contingency tables). Crude Birth Rate: the ratio between the number of live births in a population during a given year and the total mid-year population for the same year, usually multiplied by 1,000. Technical Note: Population data from the United Nations correspond to mid-year estimated values, obtained by linear interpolation from the corresponding United Nations fertility medium-variant quinquennial population projections. Crude Death Rate: the ratio between the number of deaths in a population during a given year and the total mid-year population for the same year, usually multiplied by 1,000. Technical Note: Population data from the United Nations correspond to mid-year estimated values, obtained by linear interpolation from the corresponding United Nations fertility medium-variant quinquennial population projections. Crude Prevalence Rate: a crude prevalence rate is defined as the number of specified risk factor occurrences (i.e. daily smokers) over a specified period to time (e.g. a year) divided by the total population sampled. Crude prevalence rates are usually expressed as per cent of population sampled and may be calculated for males, females, persons or some other subset of the population. Cryopreservation: storage by freezing. Curd-like Vaginal Discharge: whitish vaginal discharge, like cottage cheese; common in yeast infection. Cystitis: irritation or inflammation (swelling of the bladder usually caused by an infection. Cystocele: intrusion or bulging of the bladder into the vagina, usually caused when the vaginal muscles that support the bladder and urethra are stretched or damaged. Cystometry: test used to assess the function of the bladder by measuring the pressure or volume as the bladder is slowly being filled. Cystometry is used to assess detrusor activity, sensation, capacity, and compliance. There are different variations of the test depending on the problem being investigated, but regardless of the technique, cystometry involves insertion of a catheter into the bladder. Cystoscopy: procedure used to diagnose urinary tract disorders and provide a direct view of the urethra and bladder by inserting a thin, flexible telescope-like instrument into the urethra and then into the morning. Cytogenetics: the study of the physical appearance of chromosomes. See also — karyotype. Cytokines: cell-derived regulatory molecules. Cytological Band: an area of the chromosome that stains differently from areas around it. See also — cytological map. Cytological Map: a type of chromosome map whereby genes are located on the basis of cytological findings obtained with the aid of chromosome mutations. Cytoplasmic (Uniparental) Inheritance: see — cytoplasmic trait. Cytoplasmic Signal Transduction Molecules: proteins within the cytoplasm of cells responsible for transmitting signals from one event to the next event. Cytoplasmic Trait: a genetic characteristic in which the genes are found outside the nucleus, in chloroplasts or mitochondria. Results in offspring inheriting genetic material from only one parent. Cytophilic Antibodies: antibodies with an affinity for cells that depend on bonding forces independent of those that bind antigen to antibody. Cytosine (C): a nitrogenous base, one member of the base pair GC (guanine and cytosine) in DNA. See also — base pair, nucleotide.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     rad: a unit-absorbed dose of ionizing radiation equivalent to the absorption of 100 erg per gram of irradiated material. Radiation hybrid: a hybrid cell containing small fragments of irradiated human chromosomes. Maps of irradiation sites on chromosomes for the human, rat, mouse, and other genomes provide important markers, allowing the construction of very precise STS maps indispensable to studying multifactorial diseases. See also — sequence tagged site. Random Assignment: a process (such as a coin toss) for sample selection that gives each individual in a given population an equal chance of being included (also known as random selection). Random Error: it is the portion of variation in a measurement that has no apparent connection to any other measurement or variable, generally regarded as due to chance. Randomization: the process of assigning trial subjects to treatment or control groups using an element of chance to determine the assignments in order to reduce bias. (from ICH E6). Rapid (mini) HIA: a rapid or “mini” HIA, as the name suggests, is done quickly. It may be a “desk top” exercise, reliant on information which is already available already available “off the shelf” (Parry and Stevens, 2001), or through a half day or one day workshop with key stakeholders (Barnes et al., 2001). In either case, there is usually a minimum quantification of the potential health impacts which are identified. Rare-Cutter Enzyme: see — restriction-enzyme cutting site. ras Gene: a family of genes that encode similar cell membrane-bound proteins involved in signal transduction. Three types, K-ras, N-ras, and H-ras, are the widely studied ras genes in human tumors. Their proto-oncogene becomes activated by point mutations, most often in specific codons, of the gene sequence. Ratio of Male to Female AIDS Cases: the quotient between the number of new cases registered from Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) of male to female cases, in a specific year, for a given country, territory, or geographic area. Rationing: restricting supply of services according to implicit or explicit criteria, where demand exceeds supply. RB: the first tumor suppressor gene to be discovered. It is a 4.7-kilobase gene, located on chromosome 13q14, and encodes a 110,000-dalton nuclear phosphoprotein that suppresses the cell cycle. Absence of RB is the cause of retinoblastoma, and research is revealing that it is involved in the pathogenesis of many other neoplasms. RCT: randomized controlled trial. Real Gross Domestic Product (Real GDP): GDP which is expressed in purchasing power parity (PPP) and adjusted to the relative domestic purchasing power of the national currency as compared to the US dollar. Reassuring Fetal Heart Rate Monitor Strip/Tracing: the absence of fetal heart rate patterns defined as nonreassuring (see Nonreassuring Fetal Heart Rate Monitor Strip/Tracing). Receiver Operator Characteristics (ROC): these curves are the best way to demonstrate the relationships between sensitivity and specificity. These curves plot sensitivity (true positive rate) against the false positive rate (1-specificity). Along any particular ROC curve one can observe the impact of compromising the true positive and false positive rates. As the requirement that a test have a high true positive rate increases, the false positive rate will also increase. Recessive Gene: a gene which will be expressed only if there are 2 identical copies or, for a male, if one copy is present on the X chromosome. Reciprocal Translocation: when a pair of chromosomes exchange exactly the same length and area of DNA. Results in a shuffling of genes. Recombinant: a gene that has been isolated and recombined with other sequences responsible for gene expression. Recombinant Clone: clone containing recombinant DNA molecules. See also — recombinant DNA technology. Recombinant DNA: a new DNA sequence formed by the combination of two non-homologous DNA molecules. Recombinant DNA Molecules: a combination of DNA molecules of different origin that are joined using recombinant DNA technologies. Recombinant DNA Technology: procedure used to join together DNA segments in a cell-free system (an environment outside a cell or organism). Under appropriate conditions, a recombinant DNA molecule can enter a cell and replicate there, either autonomously or after it has become integrated into a cellular chromosome. Recombination: the process by which progeny derive a combination of genes different from that of either parent. In higher organisms, this can occur by crossing over. See also — crossing over, mutation. Rectocele: bulging of the rectum into the space normally occupied by the vagina, suggesting weakness of the pelvic floor. Rectum: last segment of colon, or large intestine, the lowest part of the bowel found right before the anus. Recurrent Expenditure: ‘Ongoing expenditure’ such as salaries, wages, travelling expenses, drugs, etc. Reference Price: the maximum price for a group of equal or similar products (mostly pharmaceuticals) the third party payer is ready to reimburse. Reform: a purposeful, dynamic process that involves systematic policy, structural and process changes and is aimed at achieving desired goals. Regeneration: regeneration is a broad concept used to describe a wide variety of measures that are designed to revive disadvantaged (mainly urban) areas. This might include -modifying the physical environment; -altering lifestyles; -improving leisure opportunities; -enhancing the training and employment prospects of local residents; -reducing stress, anxiety and fear; -strengthening control over people’s lives and fostering empowerment; -improving access to public services; and -enhancing relationships between local residents and public sector agencies. Since the second world war there have been many regeneration initiatives — the most recent being the neighborhood renewal and other related programs — and many inner city areas have been “regenerated” more than once. ((Hirschfield et al., 2001). Regressive Tax: a tax in which the poor pay a larger fraction of their income than the rich. Regulation: intervention by government, by means of rules, in health care markets or systems. Regulatory Capture: a deviance in transaction practice by which one of the parties with vested interests in the deal exerts pressure on the regulators in order to obtain better conditions in the deal. Regulatory Region or Sequence: a DNA base sequence that controls gene expression. Rehab Urinals: portable receptacles for collecting urine, usually made of plastic or metal, that is specifically designed to aid individuals who have decreased dexterity or functional ability. Relative Biologic Effectiveness (RBE): a ratio of the absorbed dose of a reference radiation to the absorbed dose of a test radiation to produce the same level of biologic effect, other conditions being equal. Relative Risk: the ratio of risk of disease or death among the exposed to that of the risk among the unexposed; this usage is synonymous with risk ratio. If the relative risk is higher than 1, there is a positive association between the exposure and the disease; if it is less than 1, there is negative association. Reliability: a study situation in which different researchers conduct the same study using the same data collection instruments and obtain the same results. The degree of stability exhibited when a measurement is repeated under identical conditions. Reliability refers to the degree to which the results obtained by a measurement procedure can be replicated. Lack of reliability may arise from divergences between observers or instruments of measurement or instability of the attribute being measured. rem: the old unit of dose equivalent. It is the product of the absorbed dose in rads and modifying factor and is being replaced by the sievert. Remuneration: refers to the activity of compensating health professionals for their time and effort in providing care. Replicability: a characteristic of study design that means a study can be repeated and produce a similar outcome. Representative Sample: a sample that provides a close approximation of the population studied, making it possible to generalize back to the population from which it was drawn. Repetitive DNA: sequences of varying lengths that occur in multiple copies in the genome; it represents much of the human genome. Reporter Gene: see — marker. Reproductive Health: reproductive health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, in all matters relating to the reproductive system and to its functions and processes. Reproductive health therefore implies that people are able to have a satisfying and safe sex life and that they have the capability to reproduce and the freedom to decide if, when and how often to do so. Implicit in this last condition are the right of men and women to be informed of and to have access to safe, effective, affordable and acceptable methods of family planning of their choice, as well as other methods of their choice for regulation of fertility which are not against the law, and the right of access to appropriate health-care services that will enable women to go safely through pregnancy and childbirth and provide couples with the best chance of having a healthy infant. In line with the above definition of reproductive health, reproductive health care is defined as the constellation of methods, techniques and services that contribute to reproductive health and well-being by preventing and solving reproductive health problems. It also includes sexual health, the purpose of which is the enhancement of life and personal relations, and not merely counseling and care related to reproduction and sexually transmitted diseases. (ICPD Program of Action, A/CONF.171/13, paragraph 7.2.) Reproductive Health Care: the sum total of services (clinical treatment, counseling, information, and education) and referrals of services as required to address individuals’ needs for health care related to human sexuality and reproduction, including: fertility regulation, prenatal care, safe birth, post-natal care, infertility, abortion, and reproductive tract infections (including sexually transmitted infections and diseases). Reproductive Rights: reproductive right rest on the recognition of the basic right of all couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing and timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so, and the right to attain the highest standard of sexual and reproductive health. They also include the right of all to make decisions concerning reproduction free of discrimination, coercion and violence. Reproductive Tract Infection (RTI): any infection associated with the reproductive/sexual organs; RTIs may be the result of endogenous infections (such as bacterial vaginosis or candida), sexually transmitted infections/diseases (such as HIV/AIDS, trichomonas or gonorrhea), or infections caused by a procedural complication (such as that related to induced abortion or other gynecological surgery). Research: any systematic inquiry that involves collecting data and disseminating the results. Research (Study) Design: a formalized and usually systematic plan to collect data that will inform a hypothesis. Researcher: any person who undertakes to conduct research (collect data). Resident Assessment Protocol (RAP): part of the Minimum Data Set that assists the nurse to assess the cause of various disruptions or conditions. The RAP provides a systematic method of assessment and is used in the development of the care plan for the individual residing in a nursing home. Residual Urine: retention of urine in the bladder after voiding due to incomplete emptying. Resolution: degree of molecular detail on a physical map of DNA, ranging from low to high. Resource Allocation: the process of deciding what is needed to carry out an activity and providing for those needs. This can include making provision for financial resources (money), capital resources (such as buildings and computer hardware) and staff resources (including the number of staff needed and the skill mix required). Resources: the basic inputs to production — the time and abilities of individuals (human resources), raw materials such as land and natural resources (air, water, minerals, etc.), transformation and accumulations of these into capital (facilities, equipment) and knowledge production processes (technologies). Responsiveness: one of the three goals of the health system to meet people’s legitimate non-health expectations about how the system treats them. Responsible Registrant: an appropriate representative of the trial’s primary Sponsor. The Responsible Registrant is responsible for ensuring that the trial is properly registered. The primary Sponsor may or may not be the primary funder. The responsible registrant should make every reasonable effort to ensure that a trial is registered once and only once in any one register, and that the trial is registered in the fewest number of registers necessary to meet applicable regulations. Restraints: medications or devices (e.g., belts, straps, jackets, chair) used to immobilize a person. Restriction Endonuclease: an enzyme that recognizes and cleaves a specific DNA sequence (usually 4-10 nucleotide bases long). Enzymes that cleave DNA at specific DNA sequences. Restriction Enzyme, Endonuclease: a protein that recognizes specific, short nucleotide sequences and cuts DNA at those sites. Bacteria contain over 400 such enzymes that recognize and cut more than 100 different DNA sequences. See also — restriction enzyme cutting site. Restriction Enzyme Cutting Site: a specific nucleotide sequence of DNA at which a particular restriction enzyme cuts the DNA. Some sites occur frequently in DNA (e.g., every several hundred base pairs); others much less frequently (rare-cutter; e.g., every 10,000 base pairs). Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP): a polymorphic difference in DNA sequence between individuals that can be recognized by restriction endonucleases. Variation between individuals in DNA fragment sizes cut by specific restriction enzymes; polymorphic sequences that result in RFLPs are used as markers on both physical maps and genetic linkage maps. RFLPs usually are caused by mutation at a cutting site. See also marker, polymorphism. Retrospective Data: data that are collected by reviewing past records or asking subjects about their past experience(s). Retrospective HIA: retrospective HIA is carried out after a program or project has been completed. It is used to inform the ongoing development of existing work. Retrospective Payment: a payment scheme whose level is determined only after services have been provided. Retroviral Infection: the presence of retroviral vectors, such as some viruses, which use their recombinant DNA to insert their genetic material into the chromosomes of the host’s cells. The virus is then propagated by the host cell. Reverse Transcriptase: an enzyme used by retroviruses to form a complementary DNA sequence (cDNA) from their RNA. The resulting DNA is then inserted into the chromosome of the host cell. An enzyme discovered in retro-viruses that has the unique ability to transcribe DNA from and RNA template. This is the reverse of the normal physiologic process. Ribonucleotide: see — nucleotide. Ribose: the five-carbon sugar that serves as a component of RNA. See also — ribonucleic acid, deoxyribose. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): a class of RNA found in the ribosomes of cells. Ribosomes: small cellular components composed of specialized ribosomal RNA and protein; site of protein synthesis. See also — RNA. Risk: the chance of probability that an event will occur. The proportion of unaffected individuals who, on average, will contract the disease of interest over a specified period of time. Results of a trial are often expressed as absolute or relative risk reductions. The absolute difference is the actual difference between the units of the difference. In relative risk, the differences are the percentage change. Relative risk reductions often sound much more dramatic than do the absolute values. One must consider the prevalence of a disease when evaluating risk reductions. Where there is a low prevalence of a disease process, small risk reductions become unimpressive and must be evaluated in terms of the benefits of a particular mode of therapy. Risk Aversion: the extent to which an individual is willing to pay to reduce variation in losses or income due to random events. Risk Communication: in genetics, a process in which a genetic counselor or other medical professional interprets genetic test results and advises patients of the consequences for them and their offspring. Risk Factor: quality that makes a person more susceptible to a specific disease. Risk Pooling: the practice of bringing several risks together for insurance purposes in order to balance the consequences of the realization of each individual risk. Risk Rating: technique for adjusting insurance premiums according to the relative risk insured. Risk Selection: the practice of singling out or disaggregating a particular risk from a pool of insured risks. RNA (Ribonucleic Acid): a chemical found in the nucleus and cytoplasm of cells; it plays an important role in protein synthesis and other chemical activities of the cell. The structure of RNA is similar to that of DNA. There are several classes of RNA molecules, including messenger RNA, transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA, and other small RNAs, each serving a different purpose. Roentgen (R): an internationally accepted unit of radiation quantity; it is the quantity of “X-ray or gamma irradiation such that the associated corpuscular emission per 0.001293 g or air produces, in air, ions carrying 1 esu of quantity of electricity of either sign”. X-rays originate outside the nucleus. Runt Disease: a condition of dwarfing that follows the injection of mature allogeneic immunologically competent cells into immunologically immature recipients. It is characterized by failure to thrive, lymph node atrophy, hepatomegaly and splenomegaly, anemia, and diarrhea.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Backcross: a cross between an animal that is heterozygous for alleles obtained from two parental strains and a second animal from one of those parental strains. Also used to describe the breeding protocol of an outcross followed by a backcross. See also — model organisms. Bacteria: microscopic organisms that can cause infection and are usually treated with antibiotics. Bacterial Artificial Chromosome (BAC): a vector used to clone DNA fragments (100- to 300-kb insert size; average, 150 kb) in Escherichia coli cells. Based on naturally occurring F-factor plasmid found in the bacterium E. coli. See also — cloning vector. Bacteriophage: see — phage. Bacteriuria: bacteria present in the urine — 100,000 colony forming units (cfu). Base: one of the molecules that form DNA and RNA molecules. See also — nucleotide, base pair, base sequence. Baseline: an observation or value that represents the background level of a measurable quantity. Base Pair (BP): two nitrogenous bases (adenine and thymine or guanine and cytosine) held together by weak bonds. Two strands of DNA are held together in the shape of a double helix by the bonds between base pairs. Base Sequence: the order of nucleotide bases in a DNA molecule; determines structure of proteins encoded by that DNA. Base Sequence Analysis: a method, sometimes automated, for determining the base sequence. B Cell or B Lymphocyte: a bone marrow cell. These cells mediate humoral immunity and are thymus-independent cells. In the avian species, these cells are derived from the bursa of Fabricius. In humans, they originate in the bone marrow. Bedside Commode: portable toilet used by individuals who have difficulty ambulating to standard facilities. Bed Days: a day during which a person is confined to a bed and in which the patient stays overnight in a hospital. Behavioral Genetics: the study of genes that may influence behavior. Behavioral Techniques: specific interventions designed to alter the relationship between the patient’s symptoms and his or her behavior and/or environment for the treatment of maladaptive urinary voiding patterns. This may be achieved by modification of the behavior and/or environment. Benchmarking, also see Best Practice: a process of measuring another organization’s product or service according to specified standards in order to compare it with and improve one’s own product or service. Beneficence: literally means doing or producing good, is the obligation to promote the well-being of others. It is the principle requiring that a physician/healthcare provider must act in a manner that benefits the patient. Beneficiaries: the individuals covered within a health plan. Benefit, see Health Benefit: in health insurance, either a payment in cash paid in settlement of a claim under the terms of an indemnity policy or the provision of a service in kind following a medical contingency covered by a scheme. Benefits Package: the set of services and other advantages in money or kind to which a person or persons are entitled by virtue of meeting particular criteria. Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH): common disorder of men older than 50 characterized by enlargement of the prostate which may press against the urethra and interfere with the flow of urine, causing overflow incontinence. BPH is the most common cause of such anatomic obstruction in elderly men. Best Available, Best Record, Most Recent: the ‘Best Available’ or ‘Best Record’ data is a selection of the most recent, most nationally representative survey of ALL surveys contained with the infobase. This selection is performed by the WHO Global Infobase team based on the total collection of data available within the Infobase. If more recent data is available it should be provided to the WHO Global Infobase team. Best Available Evidence: conclusive evidence of the links between, for example, socio-environmental factors and health or the effectiveness of interventions is not always available. In such cases, the best available evidence — that which is judged to be the most reliable and compelling — can be used, but with caution. Best Practice, see Benchmarking: an examination of the methods by which optimal outcomes are achieved. Beta Error: the error of failing to reject a false null hypothesis, i.e. declaring that a difference does not exist when in fact it does. Failure to reject the null hypothesis when it is, in fact, incorrect. Also called a Type II error. Beveridge System, see Health Care System: the system of social security and health services arising out of the Beveridge report in England and Wales, first published in 1943. This report recommended provision of health care for all people through central taxation and other compulsory financial contributions and that a system of universal benefits should give support during unemployment or sickness and after disability and retirement. The National Health Service Act of 1946 established the provision of services, free-of-charge, for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of disease. Bias: allowing subjectivity (rather than objectivity) or prejudice (rather than impartiality) to affect sample selection or data collection and analysis. Prejudice leading to the conscious or unconscious selection of study procedures that depart from the truth in particular direction or to one-sidedness in the interpretation of results. Binding Site: a term used for the antibody-combining site and other sites of specific attachment of macromolecules to one another. Biofeedback Therapy: behavioral technique in which a person learns how to consciously control involuntary responses such as muscle contractions. The person receives a visual, auditory, or tactile signal (the feedback) that indicates how well the person’s muscles are responding to the commands of the person’s nervous system. The signal is derived from a measurable physiologic parameter, which is subsequently used in an educational process to accomplish a specific therapeutic result. The signal is displayed in a quantitative way, and the patient is taught how to alter it and thus control the physiologic process. Bioinformatics: the science of managing and analyzing biological data using advanced computing techniques. Especially important in analyzing genomic research data. See also — informatics. Biologic Response Modifier: the molecule produced by the body to regulate cellular responses. Bioremediation: the use of biological organisms such as plants or microbes to aid in removing hazardous substances from an area. Biotechnology: a set of biological techniques developed through basic research and now applied to research and product development. In particular, biotechnology refers to the use by industry of recombinant DNA, cell fusion, and new bioprocessing techniques. Birth Asphyxia: the term is used for failure to initiate and sustain breathing at birth. It is not used as a predictor of outcome. Birth Attendant: a trained person with midwifery skills providing delivery care for mother and newborn. Birth Defect: any harmful trait, physical or biochemical, present at birth, whether a result of a genetic mutation or some other nongenetic factor. See also — congenital, gene, mutation, syndrome. Birth Plan: a plan for giving birth that takes into account the woman’s or couple’s preferences as well as special circumstances and possible complications or emergency situations. Birth Weight: the first weight of the newborn, measured to the nearest five grams. It is usually obtained within the first hours of birth. Bismarckian System, see Social Health Insurance: a system of national social security and health insurance introduced into the 19th century German empire under the then Chancellor Bismarck. This system is a legally mandatory system for the majority or the whole population to obtain health insurance with a designated (statutory) third-party payer through non-risk related contributions which are kept separate from taxes or other legally mandated payments. Bladder: hollow, muscular organ that lies in the pelvis and is supported by the pelvic floor muscle. The bladder has only two functions: to stretch to allow the storage of urine and to contract to enable the expulsion of urine. The term detrusor is used to refer to the smooth muscle structure of the bladder. Bladder Catheterization: procedure in which a catheter is passed through the urethra and into the bladder for the purpose of draining urine and performing diagnostic tests of bladder or urethral function. Bladder Diary or Record: daily record of bladder habits documenting urination and episodes of incontinence. Bladder Training: behavior technique that requires the patient to resist or inhibit the sensation of urgency (the strong desire to urinate), to postpone voiding, and to urinate according to a timetable rather than the urge to void. BLAST: a computer program that identifies homologous (similar) genes in different organisms, such as human, fruit fly, or nematode. Blastocyst: a stage in early human development that follows from the formation of the morula. The balstocyst is a sphere of cells containing a fluid-filled cavity forming about 4 days after fertilization and prior to the beginning of the process of implantation. Blastomeres: the cells derived from the first and subsequent cell divisions of the zygote. Block Grants: These grants are lump sum grants, calculated prospectively, and based on specific criteria which cannot be influenced by the receiving authority in the short run, for example the number of inhabitants and their distribution. Blocking Factor: a humoral antibody or an antigen-antibody complex or other factor that coats antigenic sites with a protective covering so that neither complement nor killer lymphocytes can attack the cell. Boundaries of The Health System: the outer limits within which the health system operates. More specifically, they include all activities whose primary intent is to improve health. Boundary: the outer limit of a concept. Bowel Movement: act of passing feces through the anus. Bowel: another word for intestines. BPSD: behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia. Brachytherapy: treatment of malignant tumors by radioactive sources that are implanted close to (intracavitary) or within (interstitial) the tumor. Budget, also see Global Budget: a statement of the financial resources made available to provide an agreed level of service over a set period of time or to use them for a specific purpose. Burden of Disease: the total significance of disease for society beyond the immediate cost of treatment. It is measured in years of life lost to ill health as the difference between total life expectancy and disability-adjusted life expectancy. Bursa of Fabricius: a cloacal structure in avian species containing immature lymphoid elements (B cells) and presumed to govern the production of humoral antibodies through these B cells.Read More

    A    B    C    D    E    F    G    H    I    J    K    L    M    N    O    P    Q    R    S    T    U    V    W    X    Y    Z     Salary: (prospective) remuneration which is fixed per period of time and does not vary either with the number of individuals served or with the number of services rendered. Sample Size: the specific size of the group or groups being studied. Generally, the larger the sample size, the more reliable the study results, and the more likely it is that the results can be applied to larger groups of people. Note that within the InfoBase a survey sample size (N) refers to the number of people included in a particular survey. Whereas Sample Size (n) for a particular data row refers to the number of people within that age/sex group that responded to the survey. Sampling: the process of selecting a number of subjects from all the subjects in a particular group or “universe”. Conclusions based on sample results may be attributed only to the population sampled. Any extrapolation to a larger or different population is a judgment or a guess and is not part of statistical inference. Sanger Sequencing: a widely used method of determining the order of bases in DNA. See also — sequencing, shotgun sequencing. Satellite: a chromosomal segment that branches off from the rest of the chromosome but is still connected by a thin filament or stalk. Scaffold: in genomic mapping, a series of contigs that are in the right order but not necessarily connected in one continuous stretch of sequence. Scheduled Toileting: assistance to toilet or use of bedpan or urinal offered on a fixed schedule, for example, every 2-4 hours. Scoping: scoping refers to the process of identifying the potential health impacts of a policy, program or project before they are quantified, as in a rapid HIA. It may include reviewing the relevant literature and evidence base and collecting the views of key stakeholders (those with expert knowledge of the project, those involved and those potentially affected) followed by the tabulation of the potential health impacts (Parry and Stevens, 2001). Screening: examination of usually symptom-free individuals to detect those with signs of a given disease. In relation to HIA, screening usually refers to an initial step being taken in order to determine whether a policy, program or project should be subject to a HIA. The criteria used for this process may include, for example, the size and cost of the activity in question, the extent of any obvious or immediate health effects or the perceived extent of longer term effects. A new road transport policy, for example, might meet these criteria in view of its potentially high financial cost, the possibility of immediate health effects in terms of road traffic accidents and likely longer term effects in terms of air quality. Screen-Positive Rate: percentage of the population with a positive screening test result. This includes true positives and false positives. Scrotal Abscess: bacterial infection of the scrotum, causing swelling and pain. Search Portal: the Search Portal is a web site that enables users to search the Central Repository which contains the trial registration data sets provided by Contributing Registers. The Search Portal is not a clinical trials register. Secondary Health Care: specialized ambulatory medical services and commonplace hospital care (outpatient and inpatient services). Access is often via referral from primary health care services. Secondary Infertility: infertility in a couple that has previously conceived at least once. Segregation: the normal biological process whereby the two pieces of a chromosome pair are separated during meiosis and randomly distributed to the germ cells. Semashko System: a uniform model of organizing health services introduced in CEE/CIS countries after the Second World War, and abolished in the early 1990s. Financing of health services is entirely through the state budget, with publicly owned health care facilities and publicly provided services. Different levels of state administration—central, regional, and local—were responsible for planning, allocation of resources and managing capital expenditures. Semi-Structured Interviews: interviews that combine closed-ended and open-ended questions that facilitate the description and explanation of various phenomena. Sensitivity: the proportion of truly diseased persons who are classified as diseased by the test. The sensitivity of a test is therefore the probability of a test being positive when the disease is present. The sensitivity of test may also be called the true positive rate. Sensitivity is the proportion of truly diseased individuals in the screened population who are identified as diseased by the screening test. Sensitize: the process of increasing the specific reactivity of a subject or cell to an agent. Commonly used to designate the process of increasing reactivity caused by specific antibodies or immune cells. Sepsis: presence of pathogenic organisms or their toxins in the blood. Sepsis of the genitourinary tract is referred to as urosepsis. Sequence: see — base sequence. Sequence Assembly: a process whereby the order of multiple sequenced DNA fragments is determined. Sequence Tagged Site (STS): short (200 to 500 base pairs) DNA sequence that has a single occurrence in the human genome and whose location and base sequence are known. Detectable by polymerase chain reaction, STSs are useful for localizing and orienting the mapping and sequence data reported from many different laboratories and serve as landmarks on the developing physical map of the human genome. Expressed sequence tags (ESTs) are STSs derived from cDNAs. Sequencing: determination of the order of nucleotides (base sequences) in a DNA or RNA molecule or the order of amino acids in a protein. Sequencing Technology: the instrumentation and procedures used to determine the order of nucleotides in DNA. Serial Monogamy: situation in which a person has a series of consecutive sexual relations of various durations, such that he or she has multiple partners over time, but never more than one partner at any single point in time. Service User Involvement: involving those who use services in their planning and organization by, for example, inviting them to give feedback on the quality of services and ease of access to them or by having service user representatives on the steering groups which monitor service provision and plan future developments. Sex: refers to the biological characteristics which define humans as female or male. [These sets of biological characteristics are not mutually exclusive as there are individuals who possess both, but these characteristics tend to differentiate humans as males and females. In general use in many languages, the term sex is often used to mean “sexual activity”, but for technical purposes in the context of sexuality and sexual health discussions, the above definition is preferred.] Sex Chromosome: the X or Y chromosome in human beings that determines the sex of an individual. Females have two X chromosomes in diploid cells; males have an X and a Y chromosome. The sex chromosomes comprise the 23rd chromosome pair in a karyotype. See also — autosome. Sex-Linked: traits or diseases associated with the X or Y chromosome; generally seen in males. See also — gene, mutation, sex chromosome. Sexual Health: it is a state of physical, emotional, mental and social well-being related to sexuality; it is not merely the absence of disease, dysfunction or infirmity. Sexual health requires a positive and respectful approach to sexuality and sexual relationships, as well as the possibility of having pleasurable and safe sexual experiences, free of coercion, discrimination and violence. For sexual health to be attained and maintained, the sexual rights of all persons must be respected, protected and fulfilled. Sexuality: it is a central aspect of being human throughout life and encompasses sex, gender identities and roles, sexual orientation, eroticism, pleasure, intimacy and reproduction. Sexuality is experienced and expressed in thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors, practices, roles and relationships. While sexuality can include all of these dimensions, not all of them are always experienced or expressed. Sexuality is influenced by the interaction of biological, psychological, social, economic, political, cultural, ethical, legal, historical and religious and spiritual factors. Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD): a disease that can be transmitted from one individual to another through sexual contact. Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI): a virus (such as HIV) or bacteria that can be transmitted from one individual to another through sexual contact. Sexual Rights: sexual rights embrace human rights that are already recognized in national laws, international human rights documents and other consensus documents. These include the right of all persons, free of coercion, discrimination and violence, to: the highest attainable standard of health in relation to sexuality, including access to sexual and reproductive health care services; seek, receive and impart information in relation to sexuality; sexuality education; respect for bodily integrity; choice of partner; decide to be sexually active or not; consensual sexual relations; consensual marriage; decide whether or not, and when to have children; and pursue a satisfying, safe and pleasurable sexual life. The responsible exercise of human rights requires that all persons respect the rights of others. Sexual Violence: any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances, or acts to traffic women’s sexuality, using coercion, threats of harm or physical force, by any person regardless of relationship to the victim, in any setting, including but not limited to home and work. Sharp Curettage: a procedure for emptying the uterus that involves scraping the uterine lining with a metal curette (also known as dilatation and curettage, or D&C). Shotgun Method: sequencing method that involves randomly sequenced cloned pieces of the genome, with no foreknowledge of where the piece originally came from. This can be contrasted with “directed” strategies, in which pieces of DNA from known chromosomal locations are sequenced. Because there are advantages to both strategies, researchers use both random (or shotgun) and directed strategies in combination to sequence the human genome. See also — library, genomic library. Shwartzman Reaction: a local non-immunologic inflammatory reaction with hemorrhage and necrosis produced by the injection of a bacterial endotoxin. Sickness Fund: third-party payer in social health insurance system, covering the community as a whole or sections of the population. Sievert (SU): the unit of dose equivalent in the SI system (1 Sv = 100 rem). Significance Level: a level of significance termed the alpha value is determined before the study has begun. The alpha value is the likelihood that a difference as large or larger that occurred between the study groups could be determined by chance alone. The alpha level is established by those designing the study and becomes the level of statistical significance. The most typical alpha level is 0.05. Signs: abnormalities indicative of disease identified by health care provider on examination of the patient. Simple Random Sample: a simple random sample (or single stage random) is an example of a probability sample. It is the ideal sampling frame for a survey because each eligible individual in the population has a known and non-zero chance of being included in the sample. However, this sampling frame is very expensive and often not logistically feasible. As a result, most surveys employ some form of cluster sampling. Sin Tax: tax for (luxury) goods with adverse effects on health such as alcohol, tobacco, etc. Single Gene Disorder: hereditary disorder caused by a mutant allele of a single gene (e.g., Duchenne muscular dystrophy, retinoblastoma, sickle cell disease). See also — polygenic disorders. Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP): DNA sequence variations that occur when a single nucleotide (A, T, C, or G) in the genome sequence is altered. See also — mutation, polymorphism, single-gene disorder. Single Patient Clinical Trials: these are indicated only in specific situations. They are generally used to evaluate rare diseases when other types of trials are inappropriate or when only a small percentage of patients respond to a specific treatment. Single patient clinical trials are useful to determine the response of a particular patient is due to placebo or if an adverse reaction is related to a specific medication. The disease should be chronic and the disease severity must be stable during the clinical trial duration. Small for Gestational Age: infant with a birth weight at the lower extreme of the normal birth weight distribution, commonly defined as a birth weight below the 10th percentile for gestational age. Snowball Sample: a non-probability sampling technique that involves obtaining subjects through chain referrals from friends, family, or acquaintances. Sphincter: muscular structure that opens and closes to allow bladder to store or empty urine. Social Care: services related to long-term inpatient care plus community care services, such as day care centers and social services for the chronically ill, the elderly and other groups with special needs such as the mentally ill, mentally handicapped and the physically handicapped. Social Group: any set of persons within society that differs from other sets due to demographic, economic or social characteristics such as age, sex, education level, race religion, income level, lifestyle, beliefs, etc. Social Health Insurance: social health insurance is an insurance program which meets at least one of the following three conditions: participation in the program is compulsory either by law or by the conditions of employment; the program is operated on behalf of a group and restricted to group members; or an employer makes a contribution to the program on behalf of an employee. Social Impact Assessment: social impact assessment is “the process of assessing or estimating, in advance, the social consequences that are likely to follow from specific policy actions or project development, particularly in the context of appropriate national, state or provisional policy legislation” (Vanclay and Bronstein, 1995). It is based on the assumption that the way in which the environment is structured can have a profound effect on people’s ability to interact socially with other people and to develop networks of support. For example, a major road cutting across a residential area can have the effect of dividing a community with implications for social cohesion (Hendley et al., 1998). Social Safety Net: basic arrangement to ensure that any person in a society can obtain financial and material help from the state to avoid absolute poverty and ensure survival. Social Security: the provision of social protection against a number of risks, such as incapacity to work resulting from disease or disability, unemployment, old age, or family maintenance. Somatic Cell: any cell in the body except gametes and their precursors. See also — gamete. Somatic Cell Gene Therapy: incorporating new genetic material into cells for therapeutic purposes. The new genetic material cannot be passed to offspring. See also — gene therapy. Somatic Cell Genetic Mutation: a change in the genetic structure that is neither inherited nor passed to offspring. Also called acquired mutations. See also germ line genetic mutation. Southern Blot: a technique used to detect specific DNA sequences by separating restriction enzyme digested DNA fragments on an electrophoresis gel, transferring (blotting) these fragments from the gel onto a membrane or nitrocellulose filter, followed by hybridization with a labeled probe to a specific DNA sequence. Transfer by absorption of DNA fragments separated in electrophoretic gels to membrane filters for detection of specific base sequences by radio-labeled complementary probes. Southern Blot Analysis: a molecular biology technique in which DNA is transferred to and fixed on a nylon or nitrocellulose membrane and studied with DNA probes that can then detect, for example, the presence of an oncogene. Specialist: a medical doctor who completed special post-graduate training and thereafter was licensed for expert consulting in a specific area of medicine. Specialty: a branch of medicine such as obstetrics and gynecology, orthopedics, pediatrics, psychiatry (which requires specialist training). Specificity: specificity is the proportion of truly nondiseased individuals who are so identified by the screening test. The proportion of a population of disease-free individuals who are classified as undiseased by a test. In contrast to the sensitivity of a test, the specificity of a test is the probability that a test being negative when the disease is absent. The cutoff point of a test for normality influences the specificity. Specific Fertility Rate in Women 15-19 Years of Age: ratio between the number of live births born to mothers 15 to 19 years of age during a given year and the mid-year female population 15 to 19 years of age, for a given country, territory, or geographic area, during a specified period, usually multiplied by 1,000. Spectral Karyotype (SKY): a molecular cytogenetic method in which all of the chromosomes in a metaphase spread are visualized in different colors (multicolor FISH). A graphic of all an organism’s chromosomes, each labeled with a different color. Useful for identifying chromosomal abnormalities. See also — chromosome. Spermatozoa: mature male germ cells (gametes). Splice Site: location in the DNA sequence where RNA removes the non-coding areas to form a continuous gene transcript for translation into a protein. Splice Site Mutation: nucleotide substitutions that occur in the sequence adjacent to intro-exon boundaries of genes. Splicing: the process by which introns are removed from heteronuclear RNA and the exons are joined together to maintain the open reading frame of the mRNA. Sponsor: an individual, company, institution, or organization which takes responsibility for the initiation, management, and/or financing of a clinical trial. (from ICH E6). Sponsor-Investigator: an individual who both initiates and conducts, alone or with others, a clinical trial, and under whose immediate direction the investigational product is administered to, dispensed to, or used by a subject (from ICH E6). Spontaneous Abortion: abortion that was not artificially induced; miscarriage. Unprovoked termination of pregnancy. Sporadic Cancer: cancer that occurs randomly and is not inherited from parents. Caused by DNA changes in one cell that grows and divides, spreading throughout the body. See also — hereditary cancer. Stakeholder: any party to a transaction which has particular interests in its outcome. Groups that have an interest in the organization and delivery of health care, and who either conduct, sponsor, or are consumers of health care research, such as patients, payers, health care practitioners. Standard Deviation: a measure of dispersion or variation. The mean tells where the values for a group are centered and the standard deviation is a summary of how widely dispersed the values are around this centre. Standard Error: the standard deviation of an estimate. It is used to calculate confidence intervals for the estimates. Standard of Care: professionally developed detailed written statement used to guide procedures. Standard Deviation: a measure of the variability within each group. If there is a normal (bell-shaped curve) distribution, approximately 95% of the values are within two standard deviations on both sides of the average. Standard Sampling (Proportionate): a stratified sampling technique is the process by which the population is divided into sub-groups. Sampling will then be conducted in each sub-group. Sub-groups are chosen because evidence is available that they are related to an outcome of interest (i.e. population coverage, health status, ethnicity, etc.). The strata chosen will vary by survey or country to reflect local needs. Standard Vocabulary: a set of terms covering a domain of knowledge (e.g., medicine) that can be used as a shared way to describe that domain of knowledge. The terms may be related to each other in meaningful ways (e.g., atenolol is an anti-hypertensive drug). Standardized Mortality Ratio / Rate (SMR): The number of deaths in a given year as a percentage of those expected (expected = standard mortality of the reference period, adjusted for age and sex). Statistical Significance: the degree of likelihood that a research finding (result) is due to a cause other than chance, or the affect of sampling bias (i.e. the finding is based on a randomly selected sample). Stratification: the division of a population into mutually exclusive groups, or strata. Steering Group: a group of people brought together to oversee a piece of work such as a HIA. Typically, a steering group might be made up of up of representatives of relevant professional groups, key statutory agencies and the local community and its terms of reference might include: -overseeing development and progress of the work; -agreeing the methodological framework and timescales; -providing an input of local knowledge and information; -acting as a bridge between partners; -facilitating the implementation of the assessment’s recommendations; and -helping to assimilate and disseminate the emerging lessons. (Barnes, 2000). Stem Cell: undifferentiated, primitive cells in the bone marrow that have the ability both to multiply and to differentiate into specific blood cells. Sterilization: the complete destruction of all microorganisms, including spores. It can be achieved by dry heat or steam under pressure. Stewardship: a function of a government responsible for the welfare of the population, and concerned with the trust and legitimacy with which its activities are viewed by the citizenry. It requires vision, intelligence and influence, primarily by the health ministry, which must oversee and guide the working and the development of the nation’s health actions on the government’s behalf. As used in the World Health Report 2000 components of stewardship are: Health policy formulation: defining the vision and direction for the health system; Regulation: setting fair rules of the game with a level playing field; Intelligence: assessing performance and sharing information. Stewardship is the overarching function that determines the success or failure of all other functions of the health system. It places the responsibility back on government and calls for the strengthening of ministries of health. However, it does not call for necessarily a hierarchical and controlling role of government but more of that of overseeing and steering of the health system. It calls for vision, setting of regulations and implementing them, and the capacity to assess and monitor performance over time. A strong stewardship should in fact permit a more efficient use of the private sector to meet the needs of the health system. Stillbirth: the complete expulsion or extraction from its mother of a product of conception, of at least 22 weeks gestation or 500 grams, which after separation did not show any signs of life. Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA): SEA has been defined as “the environmental assessment of a strategic action: a policy, plan or program (Therivel and Partidario, 1996). SEA developed out of the recognition that the environmental impact assessment of specific projects, whilst an extremely valuable device, does not allow sufficient scope for the examination of the effect of a combination of projects. A commitment to sustainable development requires that a strategic approach to the environment be adopted. (Wood, 1995). Strategy: the term strategy usually refers to a series of broad lines of action intended to achieve a set of goals and targets set out within a policy or program (Ritsatakis et al., 2000). For example, within the themes of Single Regeneration Budget or New Deal for Communities initiatives it is usual to set out the strategic direction needed to be taken in order to achieve the goals and objectives of each theme, such as reducing unemployment, improving health or raising educational attainment. Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI): involuntary loss of urine from the urethra due to effort or physical exertion; for example, during coughing and laughing. Structural Genomics: the effort to determine the 3D structures of large numbers of proteins using both experimental techniques and computer simulation. Structured Interviews: interviews with closed-ended, codable responses. Study (Research) Designs: a formalized and usually systematic plan to collect data that will inform a hypothesis. Subjects: the participants of research studies. Subsidy: a payment made by the government with the objective of reducing the market price of a particular product, or of maintaining the income of the producer. Substitution: in genetics, a type of mutation due to replacement of one nucleotide in a DNA sequence by another nucleotide or replacement of one amino acid in a protein by another amino acid. See also — mutation. Substitution Effect: a proportion of the change in demand as a consequence of change in relative prices. Supply: the amount of a product made available for sale at a particular price. Supplier-Induced Demand: a phenomenon whereby a health care provider, usually a physician, influences the level of a person’s demand for health care services. Suppository: medication adapted for introduction into the rectum, vagina, or urethra. Suppository bases are solid at room temperature but melt or dissolve at body temperature. Suppression: a mechanism for producing a specific state of immunologic unresponsiveness by the induction of suppressor T cells. This type of unresponsiveness is passively transferable by suppressor T cells or their soluble products. Suppressor Gene: a gene that can suppress the action of another gene. Suppressor T Cells: represent an important set of feed-back controls, centered around sensitized T lymphocytes, through which inhibitory populations of these T cells suppress the production of sensitized lymphocytes and antibody-forming cells. Suprapubic: above the pubic bone. Suprapubic Catheterization: a surgical procedure involving insertion of a tube or similar instrument through the anterior abdominal wall above the Symphysis pubis into the bladder to permit urine drainage from the bladder. Surveillance: ongoing collection of information on developments within a sector. The routine collection and analysis of data that may be used to take appropriate action. In the context of unsafe abortion, surveillance could include collecting data on maternal deaths due to complications of abortion, and caseloads within services for treatment of abortion complications. Continuous analysis, interpretation and feedback of systematically collected data, generally using methods distinguished by their practicality, uniformity, and rapidity rather than by accuracy or completeness. By observing trends in time, place and persons, changes can be observed or anticipated and appropriate action including investigative or control measures, can be taken. Sources of data may relate directly to disease or to factors influencing disease. Survey: the process of collecting information by canvassing a chosen group. Surveys Used in Analysis: main survey in analysis — adjustment of country-reported survey data to produce comparable estimates requires a survey that: is recent; is nationally representative or has broad country coverage; uses one or more of the following definitions: current smoker, current daily smoker, current smoker of cigarettes, provides age-specific prevalence rates. Surveys meeting these criteria are preferred for analysis. Where multiple surveys of the same standard exist, surveys are weighted by sample size for inclusion in the analysis. Additional surveys — sometimes a country has several surveys that can be used in the analysis. Surveys Used in Analysis — BMI: surveys chosen are the ones with — the best coverage, age specific rates for the overweight/obesity prevalence value, and/or mean BMI. Sustainability: the capacity to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability to meet future needs. Sustainability and Sustainable Development: the plethora of regeneration and neighborhood renewal initiatives under way are all intended to provide sustainable changes — that is to say, benefits for the future as well as the present. A commonly used definition of sustainable development is “development which meets the needs of present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). Swab: a rolled piece of cotton or gauze attached to the end of a stick or clamp, used for applying medications or collecting biological samples from a surface. Sympathetic Nerves: fight or flight component of the autonomic nervous system, which originates in the thoracic and lumbar region of the spinal cord. Stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system that innervates the bladder will promote bladder filling by relaxing the bladder (detrusor) muscle and contraction the internal proximal portion of the urethral sphincter to prevent urine from entering the urethra. Sympathetic fibers that innervate the intestine will cause reduced motility and reduced secretions. Symptom: abnormal phenomenon experienced by patient and indicative of disease. Syndrome: the group or recognizable pattern of symptoms or abnormalities that indicate a particular trait or disease. Syngamy: the final stage of the fertilization process in which the haploid chromosome sets from the male and female gametes come together following breakdown of the pronuclear membranes to form the zygote. Syngeneic (Isogeneic): genetically identical members of the same species. Pertaining to genetically identical or nearly identical animals, such as identical twins of highly inbred animals. Syngraft (Isograft): a graft derived from a syngeneic donor. Synteny: genes occurring in the same order on chromosomes of different species. See also linkage, conserved sequence. System: set of elements interconnected in a complex whole fulfilling a function. Range of values an index may take depending on the actual values of each of the parameters integrated in it. For the purpose of the World Health Report 2000, indices have been calculated based on best available figures. Where data were missing, estimates have been used, in accordance with classical estimation techniques. The resulting index is subject to revision once actual data become available. Consequently, present values may have to be adjusted within the range indicated by the uncertainty interval. Systematic Detection: all eligible subjects are screened for the presence of the condition being investigated. Systematic Interventions: interventions involving the use of a standardized protocol based on best practice guidelines. Systematic Sampling: systematic sampling incorporates a systematic method to a random sample (for example, the randomly selected number is five; therefore every fifth household would be sampled on selected streets).Read More